FIFTY • LESSONS • IN 
WOODWORKING : 

UPHAM 



T T 

185 









LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 




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i^ap/.J;... (fogtjrigljt f a, 




UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 












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y 



FIFTY LESSONS 



IN 



WOOD WORKING 



BY / 

ARTHUR A. UPHAM, 

Professor of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. 



J 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO : 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 

1892. 






Copyright, 1892, by 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 



FIFTY LESSONS IN WOOD WORKING. 



4- 3lH0^ 



PREFACE. 



It is not assumed that the following is the best possible 
course in manual training. According to G-. Stanley Hall, 
" There are always several equally good ways, and the best 
probably has not yet been discovered." 

Possibly ten years will show as great change in the 
method of instruction in manual training as it has in the 
teaching of drawing. 

This course is the one the writer has employed, and the 
results seem to warrant its presentation to others in the 
hope that it may aid those who desire to enter the field, 
even partially, as instructors. 

Two classes of people advocate manual training, — one 
class solely for the mental discipline gained, the other for 
the manual dexterity acquired. The first class claim that 
the object of the public schools is to train the mental 
powers of the pupil; that the home, the shop, and the place 
of business must be relied on to teach the application of 
this knowledge. The second class believe that not only 
the mental powers should be trained, but the physical abil- 
ity to apply these powers should be acquired. As the 
pupil, after being taught the rules of arithmetic, is set to 

3 



PREFACE. 



measure a room or a pile of wood, so having conceived some 
construction he is set to make it in wood or metal. 

It is usual to hear the objections: "Why should the 
school be burdened to teach the boy to drive nails, to saw 
boards, and do other mechanical tasks ?" For two reasons. 
First, because every one, rich and poor, high and low, is 
constantly in need of a little manual dexterity : from the 
time a man buttons his collar in the morning till he fastens 
his door or window at night, he is called upon to perform me- 
chanical operations. Second, because of the disappearance 
from the household of numerous operations once performed 
there, and that gave manual training, as stitching shoes, 
braiding hats, plaiting straw, seating chairs, making mats, 
etc. The introduction of machinery has taken these oper- 
ations out of the household ; the shops have " No Admit- 
tance " written over their doors. 

Hence if a youth is to have manual training he must get 
it through the schools. 

It is the purpose of this little manual to outline a course 
such as is possible in a school for both boys and girls of 
fourteen years of age or upwards, — to furnish a sort of 
shorter course in manual training. Forty-five minutes a 
day, are to be devoted to the . work. This is all the time 
that can be spared usually; and in fact that is enough if 
properly employed, especially for girls, — and I wish to in- 
sist that girls as well as boys should take the course. 

A. A. U. 

Whitewater, Wis., 1892. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. Practical Suggestions , . . , 7 

CHAPTER I. 

Use of Try-square, Gauge, Hamnier, Saw, Plane, Bit, Chisel, etc. 9 



Lesson I. To mark around a piece with 

a try-square. 
Lesson II. To mark with a gauge. 
Lesson III. To drive nails. 
Lesson IV. To saw to line along the 

grain. 
Lesson V. To plane a piece to a certain 

thickness. 
Lesson VI. To plane a piece 2" X V 

with square corners. 



Lesson VII. To saw to line across the 

grain. 
Lesson VIII. To bore holes accurately. 
Lesson IX. To smooth a piece with a 

chisel. 
Lesson X. To smooth the end of a 

piece with a block-plane. 
Lesson XI. To square a piece with a 

chisel. 



CHAPTER II. 



Operations on Wood. — Of Rabbets, Octagons, Cylinders, etc 



20 



Lesson XII To cut rabbets with a 

saw and chisel. 
Lesson XIII. To cut rabbets at an 

acute angle. 
Lesson XIV. To cut a thin piece with 

a knife, with the grain, across 

the grain. 



Lesson XV. To whittle a piece square. 
Lesson XVI. To whittle an octagon. 
Lesson XVII. To whittle a cylinder. 
Lesson XVIII. To plane a cylinder. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 



Construction of Joints, Dovetails, etc. 



Lesson XIX. To teach some different 
kinds of joints. 

Lesson XX. To make an end lap-joint. 

Lesson XXI. To make a middle lap- 
joint. 

Lesson XXII. To make a middle lap- 
joint at an acute angle. 

Lesson XXIII. To make a box-joint. 

Lesson XXIV. To make an open mor- 
tise-and-tenon joint. 

Lesson XXV. To make an open double 
mortise-and-tenon joint. 

Lesson XXVI. To make a plain closed 
morti e-and-tenon joint. 

Lesson XXVII. To make a closed mor- 
tise-and-tenon joint at an acute 
angle. 

Lesson XXVIII. To make a keyed mor- 
tise-and-tenon joint. 

Lesson XXIX. To make a double closed 
mortise-and-tenon joint. 



26 



Lesson XXX. To make a blind mor- 
tise-and-tenon joint. 

Lesson XXXI. To make an end dove- 
tail. 

Lesson XXXII. To make a half dove- 
tail lap-joint. 

Lesson XXXIII. To make an end dove- 
tail with two tongues. 

Lesson XXXIV. To make a half -blind 
dovetail with two tongues. 

Lesson XXXV. To make a mitre-joint. 

Lesson XXXVI. To make a combined 
mitre and half joint. 

Lesson XXXVII. To make a model for 
a truss. 

Lesson XXXVIII. To make a dowel 
joint. 

Lesson XJXIX. To make a blind dowel 
with mitre. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Construction of Mitre-box, Picture-frame, Screens, Shoe-black-ng 56 
Stool, etc 



Lesson XL. To make a mitre-box. 

Lesson XLI. To make a picture-frame. 

Lesson XLII. To make frames for a 
screen. 

Lesson XLIII. To make [a frame and 
panel. 

Lesson XLIV. To make a shoe-black- 
ing stool. 



Lesson XLV. To make a step-ladder. 

Lesson XL VI. To make a plant-stand. 

Lesson XLVII. To make a drawer. 

Lesson XLVIII. To make a bookcase. 

Lesson XLIX. To make a screen- 
door. 

Lesson L. To make a box with hinged 
cover. 



CHAPTER V. 



Tools — Selection, Use, and Care. 

1. Work-bench. 

2. List of tools. 

3. Sharpening chisels, etc. 

4. Filing saws. 

5. Use of saws. 

6. Bench-hook. 

7. Trys-quare. 

8. Chisels. 

9. Shave. 

10. Planes. 



80 



11. Hammer. 

12. Hatchet. 

13. Bits. 

14. Screw-driver. 

15. Gauge. 

16. Knife. 

17. T-bevel. 

18. Grain of wood. 

19. Sand-paper. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 



Each pupil should have a book, and study the exercise 
carefully beforehand. 

In every case he should make a working drawing, show- 
ing different views of the object he proposes to make. 
These drawings may be full-size, half-size, quarter-size, etc., 
as the teacher may direct. He should work with the book 
before him, following the directions step by step. The 
mental discipline gained by working from printed direc- 
tions is by no means to be despised. 

The article when done should be compared with the 
working drawing. 

The name of the maker and the date of construction 
should be written on each article. 

The material, in general, should be first-class pine, un- 
dressed, i", 1", 1£", li" thick, 20 to 30 feet of each size 
being bought at first. This is better than dressed lumber, 
because the pupil has practice in " getting out his stuff " 
When the pupil has acquired skill in planing and begins to 
make articles of use, dressed lumber may be used. 

The tests should be applied by the pupil as far as he is 
- - 7 



8 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

able, and the aim should be to make him competent as soon 
as possible. 

It is well to "mark " each pupil's work on a scale of ten, 
for in this way the pupil will the more readily realize how 
he has succeeded in his work. 

If public exercises are given as in some schools, the work 
should be exhibited the same as other school-work. It 
must be borne in mind that pupils vary much in their abil- 
ity to execute work of this kind. The teacher must guard 
against a tendency on his part to take hold of the work 
and do it for the pupil. If he finds it is not enough sim- 
ply to tell the pupil, he may show the pupil by taking an- 
other piece, and proceed to dig out a mortise or make a 
tenon, etc. The pupil will then take up his work and do 
as he has seen the teacher do. Again, in showing a pupil 
how to set a gauge or a plane, after he comprehends the 
directions the gauge should be changed and the plane 
moved out of adjustment, and the pupil required to adjust 
them properly. 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



USE OF TRY-SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, SAW, 
PLANE, BIT, AND CHISEL. 

Lesson" I. — To mark around a piece with a try-square. 

Material. — A piece of pine about V long, 1" x 2" or 
\" X 1". The material for this lesson may be taken from 
the " waste heap " or waste pieces of flat moulding from a 
carpenter's shop ; or window-parting \" X 1" may be 
bought. The sides must be accurately parallel; sides and 
edges smooth. 

Working Drawing. — A represents the piece selected, 
with pencil-dots at equal distance; B, C, D, E, F, repre- 
sent other stages in the process. 

Directions. — Lay a rule or square upon the flat side 
parallel to one edge and with a sharp pencil make a dot at 
each half of an inch, thus : . Make six dots (see Fig. 1, A). 
With a try-square (see B) and a sharp pencil draw six lines 
across the face, placing the head of the square firmly 
against the edge of the board. The work will appear as 

9 



10 LESSON'S IN WOOD-WORKING. 



seen at C. From the ends of the lines a, b, c, d, e,f, still 
using the try-square, draw the short lines across the front 
edge of the board ag, bh, ci, dj, eh,fl. The work will appear 



ST'Jvw* 



as in D. Turn over the board and from the points 
g, h, i, J, h, I draw the lines gm, 1m, io, jp, kg, Ir, 
using the try-square (see Fig. 1, E). Turn the 
board over, still using the try-square, and draw the lines 
ms, nt, ou,pv, qw, rx down the fourth side. 

Test. — If upon drawing the lines down the fourth side 
ms, nt, etc., they exactly meet the ends of the lines made on 
the first side, the work has been well done. 

Second Exercise. — Lay off lines in the same way at 
each quarter of an inch the whole length of the piece, and 
proceed as above. Do this several times until skill has 
been acquired. 

Test. — The test given above applies here. The teacher 
may plane off the faces of the piece for each successive 
trial. 

Lessor II. — To mark with a gauge. 

Material. — Pieces of the same size as employed in Lesson 
I will do here. 



USE OF TRY-SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, ETC, II 

Directions. — (1) Set the spur of the gauge (Appendix, 
p. 15) |" from the head and draw it along one side of the 
piece, over the end, down the other side, and across the 
other end. 

(2) Mark each of the four sides of the piece in a similar 
way. 

(3) Then set the spur at J" and repeat. 

(4) Set the gauge at \" and repeat, and so on until the 
piece is covered with marks. 

(5) Then plane off the marks (or take another piece) 
and set the spur so that it reaches within \ n of the further 
sides of the broad face, and mark as before two lines on 
each broad face and across the ends. 

(6) Set the gauge \" narrower and continue until marks 
already drawn are reached. 

This practice must be continued until lines can be drawn 
lightly and perfectly parallel with the side of the piece. 
No tool seems to be so difficult to handle skilfully, and no 
tool is more important for the production of good work. 

Tests. — Are the lines light, without break; of even 
depth ? Are they parallel ? 

Lessor III. — To drive nails. 

Material. — A piece 1' long, 1" thick, and 6" wide (any 
other size will, however, do as well). Wire nails 1£" long. 
Draw lines \" apart with try-square on the broad faces, 
across the grain, and across one narrow edge; also mark 
with a gauge along the grain on both broad sides lines \" 
apart. Lay the piece down over a piece of waste material, 
and, beginning at the left-hand end, drive a row of nails 
in at each point of intersection of the lines. 

Test. — As soon as this row is filled, pull the boards 



12 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKiNG. 

apart and see if the nails come through where the lines 
intersect on the other side. 

Move the piece along so that the nails already in will 
just project over the end of the waste, and drive nails in 
the second row (the ends will enter the waste as in the 
first row). 

Test, — Pull off the waste and see if the nails have come 
out at the intersection. After the nails are all in, turn 
the piece over and drive them back one row at a time and 
draw^ them with a claw-hammer (Appendix 11). 

Lessor IV. — To saw to line along the grain. 

Material.— A piece 3" long, 6" wide, and 1" thick. 

Working Drawing.— (To be made by the pupil.) 

Directions. — With the try-square and sharp pencil mark 
lines in the direction of the grain \" apart the whole width 
of the piece and across one end. Also draw a line around 
the piece \\" from one end. Fasten the piece upright in 
the vise with about 2" projecting. With a back-saw 
(Appendix 5) cut down on each line, stopping exactly at 
the cross-mark on each side of the piece. 

This exercise may be varied by marking the piece in 
quarters of an inch on two sides and then drawing the 
lines obliquely across the end, from the first mark on one 
side to the second mark on the other side, and sawing down 
as before. 

Test.— The saw must exactly follow the marks. 

In this connection let the pupil lay off and saw pieces 
2£" wide from the edge of a board 8' long, X\" thick, and 
cut into one-foot lengths for future use, using the large rip- 
saw for this purpose. 



USE OF TRY-SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, ETC. 1 3 

Test. — The pieces must be of exactly the same length 
and width. 

Lesson V. — To plane a piece to a certain thickness. 

Material. — One of the 1' pieces made in the last lesson. 

Directions. — Gauge lines on the narrow sides and ends, 
|" from the flat face, and with a jack-plane remove 
the surface until the piece is |" thick (Appendix 10). 
Plane one of the thin edges, and from this gauge lines on 
the broad sides If" from the planed edge. Plane down to 
this line. Again gauge from the broad side y 1 ^" less than 
the thickness, and remove with the smoothing-plane. 

(It may be well now to practise on the edges of the piece 
with a moulding-plane if you have one, or a rabbit-plane, 
until the piece is too small for further use. 

Test. — In planing for a smooth surface, test by laying 
the plane across the piece, turning the sole of the plane on 
the edge: the surface should be level and smooth. 

Lesson VI. — To plane a 2" X 1" piece 12" long with 
square corners. 

Material. — One of the pieces from Lesson IV. 

Working Drawing. — The pupil will make a plan of the 
work he proposes to do, full size or one-half size, and 
show it to the teacher before he begins. On the approval 
of his working drawing he may begin. His work must 
strictly conform to this drawing. A plan of the work 
required is given below, see Fig. 2. A represents the top, 
B the front, and O the end. 

Directions. — (1) Plane one broad side for the working 
face, and mark it with an au 

(2) Now gauge from this face, with the spur one inch 



14 LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 

from the head, on each of the narrow sides, and plane to 
the middle of the gauge-marks. 

(3) Plane one of the narrow sides square with the work- 
ing face, and mark the adjacent sides. 



F.d.TL 



(4) Set the gauge at 2", and gauge on the broad faces 
for the last side. 

(5) Cut the piece 12" long. 

Tests. — If the work has been carefully done the corners 
will all be square, the surfaces, ends, and edges smooth and 
straight. Hence these questions will be in the mind of the 
teacher : Are the corners square ? Is each surface smooth ? 
Are the sides straight ? Are there breaks in the edges ? 
Are the ends cut square ? An examination of these points 
will enable the teacher to mark the work on a scale of 10. 
The pupil should continue to work at this problem until 
he can produce a handsome piece of work before he pro- 
ceeds further. 

Lesson VII. — To saw to line across the grain. 

Material. — The pieces made in the last exercise, or one 
like it, 1" X 2" X 12". 

Working Drawing. — (This may be made by the pupil.) 

Directions. — With a try-square mark the piece one-half 
inch from the right-hand end ; also mark at intervals of a 
half-inch the whole length of the piece. Hold the piece 
with the right end projecting from a vise, or hold it on 
the bench-hook as directed (see A, Fig. 50). Attention 



USE OF TRY- SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, ETC. 15 

should be given to the mark on top and front edge till the 
saw strikes the back edge, and then give attention to the 
mark on the top of the work. To test, place a try-square 
against the ends, and hold the stick up between the eye 
and the light. 

Proceed to saw, and test until the whole piece is sawed 
away. 

Tests. — Is the end square in every possible way ? Did 
the ends of the lines coincide ? Did the saw run exactly 
on the mark, or just at one side, as was desired ? (The line 
should not be sawed away.) Is the end smooth? 

Lessok VIII. — To bore holes accurately. 

Material. — Two pieces like those produced in Lesson 6. 

Working Drawing —(To be made by the pupil.) 

Directions. — (1) Mark the first piece on the broad faces 
\" from the edges, using the gauge set at \" to mark the 
lines parallel to the edges of the pieces. (2) Mark the 
second piece with the gauge so as to divide the thin edges 
exactly in the middle ; then mark across each piece on four 
sides, with try-square, with lines one inch apart. If the 
pieces have been accurately planed and marked the intersec- 
tions of lines on opposite sides will be exactly in the same 
planes. (3) Bore holes with a half-inch bit in the first 
piece at the intersection of lines down through the broad 
faces, and in the second piece down through the narrow 
face. There will be 22 holes in the first set and 11 in the 
second. The aim should be to have the spur of the bit 
come out at the intersection of the lines on the back side 
of the pieces. Hold the pieces in the vise so that the hole 
to be bored will be just about on a level with the bit. 
Hold the head of the bit-stock in the palm of the left hand, 



1 6 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. ^ 

the fingers grasping it and the back of the hand, or rather 
the outside of the hand, against the bit, which then presses 
against the bit-stock. Have the left foot point under the 
bench and the right towards the foot of the bench. Stand 
bracing and turn the stock with the right hand (clockwise). 
In order that the bit may not splinter on the back side of 
the piece, have a piece of waste board behind into which 
the bit will bore a short distance. To remove the bit turn 
back about two turns, then pull on the bit-stock and turn 
in the forward direction, and it will come out, removing the 
shavings with it. 

It may take a good many trials to do this work well, 
and it may be varied by screwing the work in the vise so 
that the working face is uppermost, holding the bit and 
stock vertically, the left hand being steadied by the elbow 
held against the left side. It is sometimes necessary to 
hold the work in the vise this way in order to prevent 
splitting when a piece is bored. 

Tests. — Are the holes bored straight through ? Are the 
holes smooth ? Is the back side not splintered ? 

When the \" bit is mastered other sizes may be used. 

Lessok IX.— To smooth a surface with a chisel — with 
the grain, across the grain. 

Material. — A piece V long split out of a 2" plank with 
a hatchet or chisel. 

Working Plan. — Make a drawing of the top A, front B, 
and end of the piece as it will, be when completed; draw 
lines to show how it may be tested. (See Fig. 3.) 

Directions. — (1) Screw the piece into the vise with a 
rough side projecting \" above the jaws. Use the chisel with 
the bevel side down until the piece is fairly smooth, then 



USE OF TRY-SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, ETC. 1 7 

turn the chisel over and work the piece until it is smooth. 
Use a ruler or blade of the square to test the work to see 
that it is straight and smooth. If available, take two pieces 
a foot long and an inch or so wide and lay them across each 



A 



B 



Fyr in 



end of the piece as it is held in the vise. Squint across 
them, and any winding in the surface will be easily seen. 

Tests. — Test in three places across and in three places 
along the grain, and twice on the diagonal. (See Fig. 3.) 

Is the surface smooth ? 

Is the surface straight ? 

Is it free of chisel marks ? 

(2) Saw a short (2") piece from the end of a plank 6 
inches wide, and smooth the surface, working across the 
grain. 

Tests. — The same as above. 

Lesson X. — To smooth the end of a piece with a block 
plane. 

Material. — The short piece used in the last exercise. 

Directions. — Mark with try-square -^ " below the end, all 
around. Screw the piece firmly into the vise, and have the 
block plane very sharp and set firm. Begin at one edge 
and work towards the middle, turning the piece around so 



1 8 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

as to keep the surf ace as even as possible. Move the plane 
straight across the piece the longest way, but turn the 
plane so that the chisel cuts with a drawing stroke. 
Avoid planing over the further edge of the block. 

Make about the same kind of motion as is made in wash- 
ing clothes on a washboard. 

Tests. — Is the surface smooth and straight; especially, 
are the corners still present, or have they been split off ? 

Lessor XI. — To square a piece with a chisel. 

Material — A piece 6" X %\" X H" 

Working Plan. — Let the pupil make a drawing of the 
work, as in Lesson 6. 

Directions. — Screw the piece into the vise with the 
smoothest face up and projecting \ n above the jaws of the 
vise. If the surface is very rough, use the chisel first with 
the bevel side down, holding the handle in the right hand 
and the blade with the left. After the piece is fairly 
smooth, turn over the chisel, working neither across nor 
with the grain, but half-way between. (See Fig. 52.) 

Test with the edge of the blade of the try-square, and 
work until the piece is perfectly flat; then mark it with a 
cross ( X ) ; (this indicates that it is selected for the working 
face.) In the same way work off a side adjacent to the 
working face, testing to see that it is square with it. 

Now take the gauge and set it so that when the head is 
against the " working face " the spur will just extend to 
the opposite side, where the stick is thinnest. Mark the 
two sides e, e. Cut down to the middle of the line made 
by the spur, and test all around to see if it is square. 
Make all corrections on the third and fourth sides. Avoid 
leaving marks made by the corners of the chisel. Avoid 



USE OF TRY-SQUARE, GAUGE, HAMMER, ETC. 1 9 

cutting a thick shaving over he edge so that it will split 
off. 

Tests. — Are the corners square ? Is each surface 
smooth ? Are the sides straight ? Are there breaks in the 
edges ? Are the ends square ? 

The pupil should keep at this problem until he pro- 
duces handsome pieces of work, — work that will be marked 
10 by his teacher, — before he proceeds further. 



20 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



@Jjaj)ter M. 

Lessons XII to XVIII, Inclusive. 

OPERATIONS ON WOOD.— OF RABBETS, OCTA- 
GONS, CYLINDERS, ETC. 

Lesson - XII.— To cut six rabbets in a piece 12^" X 2" 
XI" 

Material. — The piece made in Lesson VI. 

Working Drawing. — A gives a front, B a top, C an end 
view. (See Fig. 4,) 



r 1 










< 








[ 










B 







Directions, — Mark with the gauge on the two narrow 
sides and ends \" from the edge. Then mark with a try- 
square on the broad side and down to the gauge-marks on 
the narrow sides; have these marks \\" apart, and mark 
every other one with a cross ( X ). These are the parts to 
be removed. 

With a fine back-saw cut down inside the marks so as to 
have the " saw kerf " come in the pieces that are to be re- 



OPERATIONS ON WOOD. 



moved. Fasten the pieces in a vise, and with a 1" chisel 
work out the parts to be wasted. Use chisel on both sides 
of the piece ; bevel the side down until the work is nearly 
finished, then turn the chisel over and trim to the line, 
with the flat side down. 

It may then be sawed across the middle and tested by 
trying to fit the projections into the depressions. This 
work should be repeated until the halves will go together, 
and the joints be fairly even and alike. 

Tests. — Are the rabbets of exactly equal width? Are 
they of exactly equal depth, and just to the gauge-mark ? 
Were the saw-cuts straight ? Did the saw stop when the 
gauge-marks were reached ? Are the bottoms of the rab- 
bets smooth ? Are the saw-cuts smooth ? Are the corners 
all whole ? Do the parts fit well together ? 

Lesson XIII. — To cut rabbets across a piece obliquely. 

Material. — The same as before. 

Working Drawing. — A gives a top view of the work. 
(See Fig. 5.) 




Directions. — Lay off on one edge points f " from one 
end, and at successive distances of 1^". Set the T bevel 
so that the blade touches the first point and the opposite 
corner, and draw lines across from each point. Gauge the 
narrow sides through the middle, and with a try-square lay 
off lines from the ends of the lines on the upper face to 
the gauge-marks. Work out the rabbets as before, and 
apply the same tests. 



22 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Lessok XIV. — To divide a thin piece with a knife, (1) 
across the grain, (2) with the grain. 

Material. — A thin piece \" thick sawed from the broad 
face of one of the pieces from Lesson IV. The piece may 
be sawed held upright in a vise. Have the part upon 
which the saw is operating down near the top of the jaws, 
and move it up several times as the work proceeds. 

Directions. — (1) To cut across the grain: Mark all 
around with a try-square \" from one end. Lay the piece 
on the bench with one edge parallel with the front of the 
bench, and place the try-square on the mark. Draw the 
knife lightly along the line several times, and then turn 
the knife to an angle of about 45°, and, removing it a short 
distance from the line, draw it along, cutting out a chip as 
shown in Fig. 6. Turn the piece over and repeat on the 




other side until the piece is cut off. In cutting, draw the 
knife towards you, and in making the oblique cut place 
the right thumb in front of the piece until the knife nearly 
reaches the front edge, and then take the thumb away to 
avoid being cut. 



OPERATIONS ON WOOD. 23 



Test. — Is the end square in both directions ? Repeat,, 
catting off successive pieces \" long until the piece is too 
short for further use. 

(2) To divide a thin piece with the grain, mark on both 
sides and draw the knife along the blade of a square very 
carefully and lightly at first, then increasing in force until 
the piece splits off. 

Soft wood \" thick may be split in this way without the 
waste incident to sawing. 

Test— As above. 

Lessok XV. — To whittle a piece square. 

Material.— Split out a piece 6" long and about \\" 
square. 

Smooth one side of the- piece, using the large blade of a 
knife, and testing the work as directed in Lesson IX. Get 
another side square with this one, and then mark with a 
gauge to make 1" square as in Lesson VI, and smooth to 
the lines, testing as in Lesson VI. Cut off the ends 
squarely, marking first with a try-square. After it is fin- 
ished with the knife, lay the piece on a sheet of sand-paper 
tacked on to a board, and rub the piece until the sides are 
smooth. Remember never tq put an edged tool on to a 
piece of wood after it has been sand-papered, for the em- 
bedded sand will dull the tool. 

Lessor XVI. — To whittle an octagonal prism 6" long. 
Working Plan. — A exhibit a side and B an end view 
of the work. (See Fig. 7). 

Material. — A piece like that produced in Lesson XV. 

Directions. — Saw the ends square. Draw the diagonals 
across each end. Set the gauge equal to one half the di- 
agonal, and draw two lines with the gauge so set along each 



24 LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 

face. Connect across the ends the points adjacent to each 
other, as shown in the end view (Fig. 7). Carefully whit- 
tle off the corners down to the lines. 



FitfVM. 




Tests. — Are the sides all smooth and straight ? Are the 
sides of equal size ? Are the sides of equal width through- 
out? 

Lessok XVII. — To whittle a cylinder. 

Material. — An octagonal prism like that produced in 
Lesson XVI. 

Directions. — Carefully remove with the knife each cor- 
ner of the octagon until the piece has sixteen equal sides; 
then remove each of these corners. Hold the knife at all 
times so that the length of the blade is at right angles to 
a radius of cylinder that is to be. 

To complete the work, fasten the piece upright in the 
vise, with about half its length projecting. Cut a piece of 
No. 1 sand-paper about \\" wide, and the whole length of 
the strip. Take one end of the sand-paper in either 
hand, and draw it around the stick with considerable press- 
ure. Keep moving the stick up and down and around 
so that all sides will be acted upon by the sand-paper, and 
it will be found to be a pretty good cylinder. 

Small cylinders like arrows and joints of fishing-rods 
are sand-papered by rolling them on the bench with the 
right hand, while the left applies the sand-paper to the 
part projecting over the edge of the bench. 



OPERATIONS ON WOOD. 2$ 

Practice will enable one to plane and sand-paper out 
cylinders of all sizes without marking the ends of small 
ones. 

Always make a square first, then an eight- and then a 
sixteen-sided piece, otherwise the solid is likely to be ellip- 
tical in outline of cross-section. 

Tests. — Is the piece straight ? Are the ends circular 
and equal in size ? Is it uniform in size and shape ? 

Lessok XVIII. — To plane a cylinder. 

Material. — A piece sawed or split out a little more than 
1" square and 1' long. 

Directions. — Saw off the ends square, and proceed as in 
making a cylinder with a knife. First make a square 
prism, then an octagon, then a sixteen-sided piece; take off 
the corners of this, and sand-paper as before. In planing 
for the octagon, hold the square prism by the corners in 
the vise. For the rest of the work it may be held in the 
vise or against the bench-hook, with the left thumb against 
the other end of the stick. 

If held in the latter way, care must be taken not to cut 
the left hand with the plane. 

Tests. — The same as in Lesson XVII. 



26 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Lessons XIX to XXXIX. 
ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 

Lessor XIX. — To teach the making of different kinds 
of joints, their uses and properties. 

Before starting the pupil off on the real work of making 
joints, it will be a good plan to give some general ideas on 
the different kinds of joints. 

The simplest way of joining two pieces of wood together 
(like the two sides 



of a frame, for 
example) is to saw 

off the ends of Fig.viu 

both pieces square, and fasten them together with 
nails, the lower surface of one piece being put 
across the end of the other (see Fig. 8). This 
kind of joint is sometimes used, as in a fly-screen 
which has wire netting nailed over it; as this 
strengthens it, it may be used with such condi- 
tions. 

Another joint more commonly used on account 
of the weakness of the method just described, is called the 
half orlap joint. (See Fig. 15.) 

To make an end half-joint the pieces must be the same 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 



27 



thickness, and one half the thickness of each piece is re 
moved; the two 
ends thus cut are 
placed together 
iind held with a_ 
hail, screw, or with 
glue. 
There are several modifications of the 



F14.IX. 




half-joint (see Fig. 9). In this a part of one 

piece only is cut away, and the end of the 

other fits up into the end of the rabbet thus 

made. Such a joint is often used at the corner of a box, 

or in building frame houses. 

Another modification is the grooved joint (see Fig. 10). 



F.gX 



This form is frequently used to fit in the bottom of a box 
or drawer, often modified by cutting away a part of the 
piece inserted, in which case it is called a dado joint. (See 
Fig. 10). 

The rnortise-and-tenon joint is one of the most familiar 
kinds of joint; there are several varieties. The most 



28 LESSONS IN WOOD- WORK/NO. 

common is the "open" (Figs. 11 and 19), "closed" (Fig. 
21), and "blind" (Fig. 12). These joints are used in the 




frames of doors, windows, tables, and various kinds of 
machinery, wagons, wheelbarrows, etc. 

The process of making is the same as in the others, but 
greater care is necessary to cut straight into the wood, be- 
cause being all worked from one side any irregularity will 
not be corrected. The " blind " mortise should extend as 
nearly through as possible; it is much used in furniture of 
all kinds. It is held together generally by a wooden pin, 
as may be seen on the blinds of any house; sometimes by a 
bolt, as shown in Fig. 12. (The learner should now be on 
the watch for these various kinds of joints and recognize 
them.) The modifications of mortise joints are "double 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 



2 9 



UP 



mortise " and " dovetail," which though now 
generally made by machinery are useful joints 
for practice. 

rig.All. Joints are usually fastened with nails or 
screws. 

Small pieces of apparatus are frequently 
fastened together by a thin narrow strip of 
brass or iron held in place with small screws or 
wire-nails. (See Fig. 13.) 

Parts of machinery are frequently held to- 
gether with bolts extending transversely in one piece and 
longitudinally in the other. (See Fig. 12.) 




This kind of fast- 
in such things as 
pump or other 
wheels are mounted 
apparatus. 

The tenon of a 
joint is frequently 
mortise, and a slit 
wedge is inserted. 



ening is applicable 
the frame of an air- 
frames on which 
in various pieces of 

"mortise-and-tenon" 
extended beyond the 
cut in which a 



30 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Such a joint as this is now used in the " knock-down " 
bookcase and other furniture, and whenever the protruding 
end is not objectionable. Is it a strong way of fastening, 
and makes a fine test exercise for the 
pupil. (Fig. 14.) 

Lessor XX. — To make a half or end 
lap-joint. 



Fig. xiv. 



Material.— Two pieces, each 1" thick, 
2" wide, and 6" long. 

Working Plan — This will show the 
ends of both pins joined together; full 
size. (See Fig. 15.) 

Directions. — Out one end of each piece perfectly square. 
Set the gauge at \" and gauge the narrow sides to the 
extent of 2" from one end of each piece — the square end. 
Also, two inches from these ends mark with a try-square 
across the broad side and down to the gauge marks on the 
narrow sides. Mark with a cross ( X ) on each piece that 
part which is to be cut away; on one piece it will be the 
part against which the head of the gauge rested, and on 
the other the opposite side. There are three ways to cut 
away the superfluous part: (1) pare it all away with a 
chisel after sawing down on the cross-marks ; (2) saw down 
nearly to the line and pare away the little that is left; (3) 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC, 



31 



saw accurately down on both lines. These methods may 
be tried in the order in which they are given. Hold the 
work in the vise and pare carefully with a 1" chisel as 
directed in Lesson II, taking off thin shavings at each cut. 
It will be noticed that the spur of the gauge makes a 
V-shaped mark, and in making joints of all kinds care 
must be exercised not to pare away further than to the 




middle of the mark, otherwise the pieces left will be too 
thin and the joint will not fit properly. 

To make the joint wholly or in part with the saw, hold 
the piece in a vise and saw with extreme care, allowing the 
saw to cat only to the middle of the mark. Test the sides 
and shoulder of the piece with a try-square to see if they 
are flat and square. When the joint is properly cut out it 
should be held firmly in place, and one or two wire-nails 
driven through to hold it together. The nails should 
project nearly half an inch, and these projecting ends may 



32 LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 

have a little notch filed on the sides with a three-cornered 
file down close to the wood, when they may be easily 
broken off and the ends filed smooth down to the wood. 

Tests. — Are the two pieces at right angles with each 
other ? — that is, is it square ? Do the ends come just to 
the edge? As it is laid on a bench, does it lie flat? Is 
the joint smooth at both ends? Are the corners all 
square ? 

If it fails in any of these points another trial should be 
made until a good joint can be made. 

A carpenter in making such a joint sometimes leaves the 
ends projecting a fourth of an inch, and saws them off 
flush with the sides; but, as the student is after skill, and 
not joints in themselves, it is better to cut the ends just 
right at first. 

Lessor XXI. — To make a middle lap-joint. 

Working Drawings. — A top view and a side view. (Fig. 
16.) 

Materials — Two pieces 6" x 1£" X 1'. 

Directions. — Get out the pieces with square ends and 
corners. Set the gauge at \" and gauge on the sides near 
on end of a a distance of \\" from the end, also across the 
end. Gauge the piece b on both sides near the middle, a 
distance of li". Hold the head of the gauge against the 
top side of each piece, and mark with a X the part to be 
wasted. 

Mark with a try-square on three sides of a 1J" from the 
end, across the under side, and up to the gauge-marks on 
the narrow edges. Mark the piece b to cut out a rabbet 
\" deep and 1£" wide. Gut away the waste in b as in 
Lesson XIL 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 



33 



The waste in a may be removed in the same way, or the 
whole may be removed by two saw-cuts, one across the 



grain and one with 
cut in all cases only 
of the gauge-mark, 
cut quite to the 
chisel. 

Tests. — Do the 
other perpendicular- 
close on the sides of 



Fig. 
xvi 



the grain. Saw and 
just to the middle 
If the saw does not 
mark, pare with the 

pieces meet each 
ly? Is the joint 
the rabbet? Is the 
joint close on the under side, where the cut end of a 
comes against b? Is the right amount cut away so that 
the surfaces are even both top and bottom? 

Lessok XXII. — To make a middle lap-joint at an acute 
angle. 
Material. — The same as for the last. 
Working Drawing. — A top view. (Fig. 17.) 
Directions. — Mark all the lines on the broad faces with 
the T-bevel set at an angle of about 70°. All the lines on 
the narrow faces are to be marked with a try-square. The 



34 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING- 



work is to be done the same as before. Care must be taken 
to mark the piece a far enough from the end to have it 




come even with the 
outer edge of 6. The 
end of a may be cut 
before or after the 
joint is made. 

Tests as before, ex- 
cept the first one, 
which is to be applied 
with the T-bevel instead of with the try-square. 
Lessok XXIII.— To make a box joint. 
Material.— Two pieces \" thick, 3" wide, and 6" long. 
Working Plan.— A top view. (Fig. 9.) 
Directions. — One half inch from one end of one piece 
draw a line, using a try-square, also down on the narrow 
edges half-way across. With a gauge divide the narrow 
faces in the middle down to this line, i.e., draw lines \" 
long and J" from the broad sides. Make the cross-cuts 
with a back-saw and pare out with a chisel. The cross-cut 
is often made by means of a sharp chisel or knife drawn 
along beside the blade of a try-square, or even a square on a 
very broad piece. 

In using a knife cut lightly at first until the path is 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 



35 



made for the knife, then draw it several times over the 
line, and pare away as far down as the knife has cut. Then 



» 



XV III 



side view 

cut again and so on, not trying to do all the 
cutting down before any has been pared away. 

A modification of this joint is made by cutting n 
away a part from both pieces (see Fig. 18). 
In this case the materials may be of 1" stuff. 

This joint is fastened by driving nails or 
beads down through one piece with the end of 
the other. 

In connection with this lesson the joints 
represented in Fig. 14 may be tried. The ob- 
jective point in all joints is to have the two 
pieces fit snugly at all points where contact 
should be made. Attempts to make these 
joints will fail unless the attention is given 
to have the inserted ends perfectly square. (See direc- 
tions for using block-plane.) 

Tests — As in Lesson XX. 

Lesson XXIV. — To make open mortise-and-tenon joint. 
(Fig. 11.) 

Working Drawing. — A top view, an end view. (Figs. 
H) and 19.) 

Material — One piece 1J" X 1\" 9 and 12" long. 

Directions, — Mark each end lightly with a try-square 



36 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



1J" from the end. 
and the other 
-f" from the 
side, and mark 
on the 1|" side, 
and it will be 
divided into 
three equal 
parts -§" wide. 



Set the gauge so that one spur is §' 



•i 



XIX 



Mark between the square marks and the 
ends and across the ends. The pieces 
should be held in the vise, and great care 
used to have this part of the work done 
accurately. Mark with a cross (X) the 
waste for the mortise and the waste on 
either side of the tenon. (See Fig. 
20). 

Cut away the parts 5, c on the sides of the tenon in the 
same way as directed for the half-joint, using the same 
precautions not to cut too far, etc. 





F.gTXX „ 


>B \ 


-A 


\ 




,c \ 


\ 




_^ 



There are several methods to remove the chief part, a, of 
the waste of the mortise. 

First Method. — Fasten the piece down upon the bench 
with a pair of clamps, or screw firmly into a vise, with the 
gauge-marks uppermost, With a \" chisel and mallet re- 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 37 

move the superfluous wood. Hold the chisel upright with 
the flat side out about \" from the outside end of the 
mortise. Drive down the chisel, and the bevelled side will 
force out the chisel and the chips from the mortise. 
Kepeat, moving the chisel back \" until near the blind 
end of the mortise; then turn the piece over and remove 
the wood from the other side. Finish the blind end by- 
driving the chisel half-way through from each side, hav- 
ing the flat side of the chisel in. AVith this method and 
the following it is necessary to trim the sides of the mor- 
tise to finish with a 1" chisel and the end with a f" 
chisel. Test with try-square to see if ends are square and 
sides are flat. 

In cutting at the last at the blind end use the same pre- 
cautions mentioned in using the block-plane, i.e., work 
towards the middle, and not over the edge. 

Second Method. — Saw down with a fine saw just within 
the gauge-marks. With a sharp chisel cut down through 
the wood left by the saw. Holding the chisel upright at 
the blind end, drive it in an eighth of an inch; then move 
the chisel \" nearer the end and cut out a triangular chip, 
the chisel slanting away from the blind end (see Fig. 21). 
Kepeat this process till it is cut half-way through, then 
turn the piece over and cut away the rest. 

Third Method — Bore with a \" bit a number of holes 
just touching each other, sufficient to take away all the 
superfluous wood. This is a method used for fine work 
in hard wood, and requires a skilful workman to bore the 
holes all in the same direction. 

Fourth Method — With a \" bit bore one hole ne&r the 
blind end. With a fine back-saw cut down as in the first 



38 



LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 



method. The fourth method is very common. It is cus- 
tomary when the mortise goes entirely through the piece 
to bore the holes part way through from one side and the 
rest of the way from the other. Cut the piece in two. 
The mortise-and-tenon must now be trimmed until the 




tenon slips into the mortise with the pressure of the hand, 
and this joint should be practised upon till a good joint 
can be made. Carpenters are accustomed to leave the 
tenon a little longer and plane it off flush after it is in 
place. Examination of the joint will show that the square 
marks did not need to go clear a round the piece, but only 
on one side and opposite the waste each side of the tenon. 

Tests. — Is it square ? Are the ends flush ? Does the 
tenon fill ? Is the joint between the shoulder of the tenon- 
and-mortise good ? Are the upper surfaces in the same 
plane ? 

(Sometimes one shoulder fits and the other does not, or 
it may even not touch. In this case it is one of the " tricks 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 39 

of the trade " to cut down through to the tenon with a fine 
saw, after which the tenon is driven up. This is a practice 
much resorted to by poor and sometimes by good workmen. 
All such expedients are to be used only when the end 
sought is joints and not skill.) 

Lessok XXV. — To make an open double mortise-and- 
tenon joint. 

Working Drawing. — Top, end, and side view. 

Material.— 1|" wide, 1' thick, and 6" long. Lay off 
with try-square one inch from each end. 

Directions. — Set the gauge to mark \ the width of the 
piece, i.e., f " in this case. As there are four lines to be 
drawn the gauge will have to be set twice. The first time 
the spurs will be f " and -§" and, the second time 1^" and 
1|". Lay the pieces the same way they are to go together, 
and be sure and mark with the head of the gauge on the 
same side each time. Set the gauge and mark both pieces, 
then set again and mark both pieces. Cut the outside of 
the two tenons as before, and cut the mortises by any one 
of the methods given. Great care will be needed in mak- 
ing this joint to have all the tenons fit, and this will only 
be accomplished by care in marking, and in cutting, as 
before mentioned, only to the centre of the gauge-marks. 
The points to be observed are the same as before. 

Lessor XXVI. — To make a plain closed mortise-and- 
tenon joint. 

Working Drawing — A side view, end view, and view 
of other side of tenon-piece. (See Fig. 22#.) 

Materials. — Two pieces 1-|" square, 6" long. Near the 
middle of the piece intended to contain the mortise mark 
with a try-square two lines all around \\ n apart. 



40 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Directions.— Set the gauge at f" and -§-", and mark be- 
tween the lines on opposite sides for the mortise. Mark 
out the tenon, and cut it out as before directed. 

There are several ways of digging out the mortise. 

First Method. — The mortise may be worked out with 









































8 

i 

i 
i 
i 




Fig.^XXIt. A 










chisel bevel side in, 










and mallet cutting 






XXu. 

B 




first on one side and 








then on the other 










parallel with the 








U 






grain; then with a 








O 






narrow chisel bevel 










side in driving it 










straight across the 










grain near the end 










at first, then work- 










ing back and finish- 










ing 


with the flat 











side near the inner end of the mortise. After cutting 
down at the sides and across the end -J-" deep, the piece 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 41 

may be pried out of soft wood, using the chisel bevel side 
down. 

Second Method. — Bore two holes near the end of the 
mortise half-way through, then turn the stick and finish 
from the other side (see Fig. 226). Dig out with a chisel 
as last directed, not finishing to within -^ n of the ends 
until the last thing, as otherwise the corners will be 
marred, prying over them. 

Third Method.— With a \" bit bore holes the whole 
length of the mortise, and finish as before. Observation 
will show what part of the marks made with the try- 
square may be omitted. 

The points to be observed are the same as before. 

Lessor XXVII. — To make a closed mortise-and-tenon 
joint at an acute angle. 

Working Drawing. — A top view and an end view. 

Material. — The same as in the last. 

Directions. — Set the T-bevel at an angle of 70°, and the 
gauge as in the last lesson. 

Mark with the gauge the same sides as before, but the 
long lines which were made before with a try-square should 
be made now with the T-bevel. The short lines for the 
waste on each side of the tenon and the ends of the mor- 
tise are to be marked with a try-square. If the mortise 
is dug out by boring holes, great care must be exercised 
not to let the bit run into the wood outside the ends of 
the mortise. 

Tests. — The same as for any mortise-and-tenon joint. 

Lessor XXVIII. — To make a keyed mortise-and-tenon 
joint. 



42 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Working Drawing — A top view, with dotted lines to 
show the key. (Fig. 23.) 



JL 






Materials. — The 

a piece for the key 
and \" wide. 

Directions. — Cut 
end of a, and then 
shoulder, and with a 
form shown in the 
mortise of the usual 
it \" longer at the 
with a narrow chisel 
to the inside edge 

Make the key to 
and saw it off flush 
of the mortise. 

Tests. — The same as before, 
used to resist tension. 

Lesson" XXIX. — To make a 
tenon joint. 



same as before; also 
2" long, |" thick, 

the tenon on the 
saw down \" at the 
chisel cut to the 
figure. Make the 
size, and then cut 
outside edge, and 
cut it slanting back 
of the piece, 
drive snugly in place, 
with the two edges 



This kind of joint is much 
double closed mortise-and- 



Working Drawing.— An end view. 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 43 

Material.— The same as for Lesson XXV. 

Directions. — Lay out the work the same as in Lesson 
XXV, except that the mortises are to be made near the 
middle of the piece. The outside of the tenons are to be 
made as any tenons are ; the insides are to be made like 
mortises. The mortises are to be dug out by boring holes 
as usual. Great care must be taken in gauging to work 
always from the same side of each piece, and in cutting to 
stop at the middle of the gauge-mark. 

Tests. — Do all the adjacent sides fit tightly? Other 
tests as in other joints. 

Lessor XXX. — To make a blind mortise -and-tenon 
joint. (See Fig. 12.) 

Working Drawing,— View of mortise; also of tenon. 

Material — Same as for Lesson XXV. 

Directions. — The blind mortise differs from the other by 
not extending clear through the piece, and of course re- 
quires a shorter tenon to fit. 

The process of construction is the same as in the others. 
The blind mortise-and-tenon should extend as nearly 
through as possible. It is much used in furniture of all 
kinds. It is held together by a pin, generally of wood ; 
sometimes by a bolt, as shown in Fig. 12. To bore the 
hole for a pin in a mortise-and-tenon joint bore the hole 
through the mortise first. The hole is not bored clear 
through, but when the point of the bit shows turn the 
piece oyer, and finish from that side. Thus a clean cut is 
made on both sides. Then insert the tenon, and pushing 
the bit in, mark the centre of the hole. Remove the tenon, 
and bore the hole about y 1 -^" nearer the shoulder. This 
results in bringing the pieces nearer together, and making 



44 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKIMC. 



a better joint when the pin is driven in. Make the pin as 
directed in Lesson III, and taper the end so it will not 
strike the second part of the mortise as it is driven in. 
Drive it in and saw off the projecting ends not quite close, 



Ttf/> KieK^. 




&• 



xxiv. 



but leaving a little to be trimmed 
with a sharp chisel or knife. 

Tests.— Is it square ? Is the mor- 
tise cut in at right angles to the 
face ? Does the tenon go to the end 
of the mortise ? 

Lesson XXXI. — To make an end 
dovetail joint. 

Working Drawing.— A top view. 
(See Fig. 24.) 

Material — \\" wide, \" thick, 
and 6" long. 

Directions. — Square one end of each piece, and mark 
off with try-square \" from each end. Lines on the ends 



» i 



End vie** 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 4$ 

and sides may be drawn with a gauge as usual. The line 
bd and corresponding line must be drawn with try-square 
after determining the point b and corresponding points; 
cd is \" and ab f " long. The waste may be cut away by 
sawing, but the oblique cut on the tenon will probably be 
most easily made with a chisel, cutting from the end 
towards the shoulder with the flat side of the chisel down, 
the piece being held in a vise. Great care is necessary in 
cutting the blind end of the mortise not to dig into the 
sides and so weaken the piece. As will be seen, the prop- 
erty of this joint is that it admits of being separated only 
in one direction. 

Tests. — Is it square ? Are the sides flush ? Does the 
tongue fill at all points ? Is the end of the tongue just 
even with the edges of the mortise ? 

Lessojst XXXII. — To make a dovetail middle lap-joint. 

Working Drawing.— Side and end view. (See Fig. 25.) 

Material.— Two pieces 6" long, 2" wide, 1" or -J" thick. 

Directions. — Gauge at half the thickness at the end of 
one piece for the tongue on two sides for two inches and 
across the end. Gauge along through 2" of the middle of 
the narrow edges of the piece in which the mortise is to be 
cut. Lay out the tongue first as a part of a simple lap- 
joint, and cut it out; then lay off \" from the edges at the 
shoulder, and with a chisel cut the oblique lines, being 
careful not to take any off the outside corners. Lay out 
the rabbet as usual, and then take two points \" in from 
the inner ends of the lines on top, lay off the oblique lines 
as shown, and from the ends of these two lines perpen- 
dicular with the top surface. Saw carefully on the oblique 
lilies and work out with a chisel, 



46 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Sometimes the tongue is made first and then laid on the 
other piece, which is marked from the already constructed 
tongue. 



T.jS.XXV 



Tests.- 

p. 33.) 



-The same as for the middle lap-joint. (See 



-To make an end dovetail with two 



An end and a front view. 

in Lesson XXXI, only twice as 



Lessok XXXIIL 
tongues. 

Working Drawing. - 

Material. — Same as 
wide. 

Directions. — If two pupils have made the piece de- 
scribed in the last lesson, and they are made of the same 
size, they may be laid side by side and nailed together. 
We shall then have an end open dovetail with two tongues, 
and the data for marking may be obtained from this 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 



47 



model. The work now practically consists in cutting 
mortises on both pieces, the tongues of one piece enclosing 
a mortise between them. Great care must be exercised to 
square the ends and mark very accurately, or some of the 
joints will not be close, and it is about impossible to trim 
a dovetail joint so as to make it good. 

Lesson XXXIV. — To make a half-blind dovetail with 
two tongues. 

Working Drawing.— A top view. (See Fig. 26.) 



End. 



Tv-onT v/iCv/. 



B 




i 

s 
J XXVI 



r.j. 



Material — Two pieces 2£" wide, £" thick, and 6" long. 

Directions. — If a thin board is laid against one side of 
the joint last made, its end coming out flush with the 
other side, it will be seen that the joint is half covered up, 
and the construction of the joint for this lesson will be 
understood. 

With a gauge mark on the end of the piece A \" from 
the edge, and on this line take points J", 1", li", and 2" 
from the edge. On the other edge of A lay off points f", 
|", If", and 1J" from the same edge. Connect these 
points on opposite sides as seen in Fig. 26, With a gauge 



4 8 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



or try-square lay off a line on each broad side of the piece 
B f " from the end. On the edge and on this line lay off 
the points the same as on the piece A, drawing the lines for 
the tongues. The tongues in B are cut the same as before. 
The mortises in A are cut by the second method for 
mortise-and-tenon. It is customary to saw down until the 
saw strikes the upper inside corner and the lower outside 
corner of the mortise. The saw will be more easily guided 
if it is pushed towards instead of from the end of the 
piece. Great care must be taken that the blind end of the 



F.tf. XXVI I , 



mortises are square with faces of the pieces 
A and B. Don't forget to leave a little to 
be pared off just at the last to save the 
corners from being marred by the chisel. 

Lessor XXXV. — To make a mitre-joint 
for a frame. 

Working Drawing. — A top view. (See 
Fig. 27.) 

Material.— Two pieces 1J" square, 6" 
long. 

Directions.— From an aesthetic point of 
view the mitre- joint is a fine joint; from a 
mechanical standpoint it is one of the poor- 
est, for unless fastened with glued tongues, 
when it really becomes a mortise-and-tenon joint, it is very 
weak, and every change of size by moisture and dryness 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 49 

makes it worse. The pieces must be exactly of the same 
thickness, and one end of each perfectly square. 

On opposite sides of each piece lay off a square abed 
(see Fig. 28) at the end, and draw the diagonal ad, also 




£ 



Ty 



x*vm. 



the line de, with a try-square. Then cut carefully on the 
line ad down along the line de. If well done, the two 
pieces should go together like the corner of a picture- 
frame. If the joint is not perfect the face may be trimmed 
with a chisel or block-plane. The part acd down to the 
point e may be removed by driving a chisel down in the 
direction de or in the direction da, in the first case the 
piece being laid on a bench, and in the second being held 
in a vise. 

Next try to make a mitre-joint with pieces 4" wide and 
•J-" thick, the pieces forming the sides of a box. Mark out 
as before, being especially careful with the square mark. 

Place each piece in a vise, and pare off most of the waste 
with a chisel or shave, finishing with a block-plane. This 
joint may also be sawed out on a wide or narrow piece if 
a little of the end projects to keep the saw in place (see 
Fig. 29), so that as the saw cuts them off they are left of 

JO. 




just the right length. When moulding is cut up with a 
mitre-box, as in making picture-frames, the saw must be 



50 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

changed in the slots of the box so that a triangular piece 
is wasted between each two pieces of frame. 






A 



/ \ 



r,g.xxx: -vv/aste. 

This piece of waste (Fig. 30) has its long side from the 
inside of the moulding. 

T 



B 



Pl6. XXXI. 

Lessok XXXVI.— To make a combined 

mitre and half joint. 

Working Plan.— A side view. (See Fig. 31.) 

Material.— Two pieces, each 3" wide, f" 
thick, and 6" long. 

Such joints are held together by nailing, the 
nails being driven into each piece, care being 
taken not to have the upper piece slip down 
on the other as the nails are driven. Also, ob- 
lique cuts are made through both parts of the 
joint, and thin tongues of wood glued in. It 
requires considerable skill to make a mitre-joint 
which shall fit perfectly and be square. 

In making mitre-joints with a mitre-box (for 
directions for making mitre-box see Lesson XL), the box is 



ON JOINTS, DO VE TAILS, ETC. 5 1 

nailed down to the bench or screwed into. a vise, and the 
pieces being marked off the right length with a try-square, 
they are held. Cut the end of each piece perfectly square 
in both directions. With a gauge mark a line \" from what 
is to be the outer surface on the end of each piece. These 
lines will be three inches long. On the piece A gauge \" 
from the outer surface, on the narrow surface lines f" 
long. On the piece B gauge similar lines \" long. From 
the inside surface of each piece mark with a try-square 
down to these gauge-marks. On the piece A f ' from the 
end and on the piece B \" from the end cut with saw and 
chisel as in making a half-joint. Then mark out the 
mitre, the inside edge of which is \" from the outer sur- 
faces. Cut the mitre with a very sharp chisel, being care- 
ful not to cut too deep at the outside corners. The joint 
may be fastened with glue * or with brads driven through 
the piece A into the end of B. This joint is well adapted 
for the corner of a box or chest, as it combines the ele- 

*Glue is prepared by soaking overnight in cold water. The sur- 
plus water is then poured off, and the glue melted by heating in a 
dish of water. It must be ropy and hot when applied, and the 
pieces are clamped together when dry. When glue is applied to the 
end grain of wood, a thin coat of sizing, which is thin glue, is ap- 
plied, and allowed to dry first before the final application is made. To 
make a cheap glue-pot take two old tin cans — a pint can and a quart 
can. Place the top of each over an oil-stove until the solder melts 
and the ragged rim can be knocked off. The smaller can may then 
have two slits V apart, cut down |" on one side. The part between 
the cuts may then be bent over to form a lug or ear to hook over the 
top of the quart can. Heat the glue in the small can by the water 
kept hot in the large can. Buy a small bristle-brush to use in the 
glue-pot. Nothing else spreads the glue properly. 



52 



LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 



gance of the mitre-joint with the strength of the half- 
joint. 

Lesson XXXVII. — To make a model for a truss. 

Working Drawing.— A side view. (See Fig. 32.) 

Material. Pieces 2" wide and |" thick. 

The joint b (Kig. 32) may be of any angle desired, and 
may be mortised as well as mitred. The joints a and c 

b 




are half -dovetail, halved into the rafters. Make the mitre- 
joint first and fasten it, then lay the pieces on to the cross- 
piece to get the angle for the half-joints. After the cross- 
piece is halved and the dovetail cut it may be laid on the 
pieces and the size of the rabbets got directly from the 
tongues. Use the gauge to get the thickness of the pieces, 
and be sure that the narrow sides of the tongues are cut 
square with the broad faces ; otherwise they will not fit. 

Varieties of this may be made by mortising a and c, 
making a keyed mortise-and-tenon joint. 

It will be seen that such a combination of three pieces 
makes a firm frame, resisting any attempt to change its 
shape in any particular. Any number of varieties of truss 
may be made, and incidentally a little instruction may be 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 53 




XXXIII. 



given on the theory of the truss, and its use in bridges 
and roofs. 

Lessor XXXVIII. — To make a dowel-joint. 

Working Material. — 1 piece \\" square and 6" long, 1 
piece 3" wide, 1" thick, and 6" long. 

Drawing. — Side and end view. (See Fig. 33.) 

Directions. — A dowel is a 
small pin of wood or metal, 
generally of the former, used 
instead of a tenon to unite 
two pieces of wood". It is 
used in such places as to fast- 
en the frame of a table to the leg, to hold the edges of 
two boards together, etc. The narrow strips of which 
school desks are made are now held in the same plane by 
small wire dowels in all the best desks. 

With a gauge mark the piece A (Fig. 33) through the 
middle of the end the long way. Mark the piece B through 
the middle on one side. Lay B on the bench with the 
marked side up, and place on the mark two small shot f " 
and 2" respectively from the end. Place the piece A with 
the end on the side of B, with the narrow edge of A even 
with the end of A and the gauge-marks coinciding. Strike 
the other end of A a smart blow with a hammer, and the 
shot will mark the side of B and the end of A. Where 
these marks are, bore f" holes 1^" deep. 

Prepare a dowel-plate by taking a thick butt or hinge, 
and with a reamer enlarge the screw-holes till one is a 
trifle more than § ", and the next f", and the other \ n in 
diameter. With a file smooth off the burr made by the 
reamer. Split an oak pin \" square and whittle off the 



54 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



corners and drive it through the holes, beginning with the 
largest. Have the dowel-plate over a hole in the bench, or 
across the iron vise jaws, or over a hole in the anvil if you 
have one. Drive in the pin with the small end of the 
hole in the dowel-plate (the hinge) uppermost. 

Plane off two shavings from one side of the dowel for 
the escape of air and glue, when it is driven in, and cut 
into 2i" lengths. Apply hot glue and drive into the 




piece J, and then drive a on to the dowels, putting a piece 
of waste wood under the hammer to prevent marring. 

It is well to run a rose-bit into the holes of one piece 
to make a countersink for the surplus glue to collect. 
Otherwise it will ooze out, and prevent the two pieces 
from coming close together and making a good joint. Al- 



ON JOINTS, DOVETAILS, ETC. 55 

most any of the joints may be fastened together with dow- 
els. 

Lesson XXXIX.— To make a blind dowel-joint with a 
mitre. 

Working Drawing.— A view of edge of each piece (Fig. 
34). 

Materials — Two pieces 3" long, 2" wide, 1" thick. 

Directions. — In making this joint the ends of the pieces 
are first squared, then the half-joint is made f " deep, and 
then the mitre cut, after which the marks are made for 
the dowel. The piece a should be screwed into a vise with 
the inside in front, with another piece behind it coming up 
a little above. The shot should be laid on, and the piece 
b resting on them must be pushed back until the sharp 
edge of the mitre hits the board behind a; then strike b to 
make the shot mark it. Care must be taken not to bore 
the holes in b too deep and so have the spur of the bit 
come through. 



56 



LESSORS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



Lesson XL to L Inclusive. 
CONSTRUCTION OF MITRE-BOX. 

Picture-frame, Screens, Frame and Panel, Shoe-black- 
ing Stool, Step-ladder, a Drawer, a Bookcase, Screen- 
door, Box and Cover. 
Lessor XL. — To make a mitre-box. 
Working Drawing.— A side view and top view (Fig. 

35). 
Material — Three pieces 28" long, 4" wide, 1£" thick, 

and 20 tenpenny nails. 




Top 



~ZL 





xxxv. 




Side view. 


! 







Directions. — Get out each piece with square ends and 
edges, and nail firmly together to form a square trough or 
gutter. Put in the nails, two in each division of the side. 



CONSTRUCTION OF MITRE-BOX, $7 

Four inches from each end and exactly two from the 
middle draw lines across the tops and down the sides. 
Fasten the box in the vise, or nail to the bench, and with a 
sharp back-saw cut down on the lines through both sides 
as far as the bottom. 

Saw the lines at the end of the box straight across, but 
those at the middle, on the diagonals of the square formed 
by the lines, across the top and the edges of the side. 

To use the mitre-box a piece of moulding is laid against 
the further side and held firmly with the left hand while 
it is sawed by a saw running down in the slots. Pieces 
may be cut off square or at an angle of 45°. 

Test. — Cut off two pieces of moulding and try them 
to see if they meet at an exact right angle. Saw off a 
piece at the slots at either end and apply a try-square to 
them. Are the sides at exactly right angles to the bottom ? 
(It is well to put the pieces of the box together with glue 
as well as nails.) 

Lessor XLI. — To make a picture-frame 15" X 20". 

Material. — Moulding made or bought one inch more 
than the length of the four sides of the completed frame 
inside plus eight times the width of the frame. 

Directions. — The simplest way is to use moulding 
already made, cutting the moulding in a mitre-box and 
joining the corners. Most pupils, however, would prefer 
to make the whole thing themselves. 

It is now customary to make frames out of everything, 
from the lichen-covered boards of sn old fence to the solid 
gilt, so that a mistake can hardly be made. For this exer- 
cise the material may be 3" wide, with flat face chamfered 
on each edge. If the pupil is strong he may get a piece 



58 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



of oak flooring -f" thick; otherwise it had better be made 
of softer wood. Six feet in length will be required. It 
must be gotten out of exactly the same width, and edges 
should be square with the front face. 

For chamfering it should be marked very lightly \ n 
away from the corners, and the chamfering is to be clone 
with a plane set fine and sharp. The under side is to be 
rabbeted \ n wide and -§" deep, leaving \ ff of thickness 
between the bottom of the rabbet and the chamfer. Se- 
lect such surfaces to rabbet and chamfer, and do it in 
such a direction, that it will make a smooth job. After 
the moulding is done it is to be sawed in the mitre-box. 
The pupil should practise sawing on something else until 
he is sure of making a good job. If the frame is of oak it 
will be difficult to nail the corners and have them right. 
The corners should be fastened in a vise and drilled with a 
twist-drill. A good way to fasten the frame together is to 
put an iron on the back side of the joint. These irons may 
be 3V band-iron, f " wide, 3" long, each piece drilled with 
two holes near each end. These holes should be counter- 
sunk for screws. The faces of the moulding may be deco- 
rated by cutting narrow, shallow rabbets with a fine saw 
and \" chisel, being careful to make the bottom smooth. 
These rabbets may be of any design preferred; one is given 
in Fig. 36, 



£ srx 1 




-- / / / 


W -" 




_^y 



If the frame is of oak or ash it may be finished by apply- 
ing a very thin coat of asphaltum stain and then rubbing 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCREEN, 59 

it off immediately with burlap, or sand-papering it all off 
after it is dry, except what has soaked into the grain. 
It may then be varnished. This makes antique oak or 
ash. Part of it may be scorched over an oil-stove or lamp. 
The glass and backing may be purchased. After the pic- 
ture is in all right paste a sheet of heavy manila paper 
over the back, applying the paste only at the edges, to 
keep out dust. 

Tests. — Are the corners square ? Do the corners fit ? 
Does the frame lie flat ? Is the surface smooth ? Are the 
opposite sides of equal length ? 

Lessor XLII. — To make frames for a screen. 
Working Drawing.— A top view. (See Fig. 37.) 
Material. — The material will of course depend on the 
size of the screen and the number of panels. For a screen 




of three panels, five feet high and each panel 18" wide is a 
good size. For such a screen 39 feet of material will be 
needed, \\" x \" , viz., six pieces each 5' long and six 
18" long. 

Directions. — The corners may be joined by an end lap 
or a mortise-and-tenon, according to the amount of work 
desirable to put on it. The pieces for each frame must 



6o 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



be got out so that the frame will be of exactly the same 
size, corners and ends square, etc. Great care must be 
exercised to joint the pieces together so that the frames 
will lie flat on a plane surface. The three panels are to be 
hinged together in such a way that they will 
swing either way. Hinges for this purpose 
are made with two strips of black tape 
tacked tightly on to opposite sides of adja- 
cent parts, as shown in Fig. 37. Two strips. 
of tape must be put on for each hinge and 
drawn tight, so that there will be no large 
crack at the joint. 

If the frames are made of pine they may 
be stained with some of the liquid stains 
which may now be bought in small cans. 
The cover for the panels may be of any- 
thing from five-cent print to canvas, covered 
with oil painting. Some designs of calico 
make a very neat covering. Brass-headed 
tacks add much to the neat effect. It is well 
u to put the lower cross-bars several inches 
above the lower ends of the uprights. (See Fig. 38.) 
Lessor XLIII. — To make a frame and panel. 
Working Drawing.— Front view, view of top rail show- 
ing relish. 

Material.— For the frame, stuff 2" wide and J" thick; 
for the panel, \ n stuff. A good size for an exercise in pan- 
elling is 10" X 16." 

Directions.— Prepare two pieces for the frame 27" long 
and the right width and thickness. It is better to groove 
them for the panel before cutting into shorter pieces. 




CONSTRUCTION OF SCREEN. 



61 



With the groover of a pair of matehing-planes, or with a 
" plow," make a groove £" wide and -§" deep. The edges of 
the piece must be perfectly square, and the piece is held in 
a vise. It is well to try the plane on a piece of waste, to 
see that it works all right. Before grooving, decide which 
is to be the outside of the frame, and choose that side with 
reference to the grain, so that that edge of the groove will 



XXX IX , 



s'coLet V« / ' 



be smooth. Take a piece of not very straight-grained wood 
and groove it for a trial, and it will be seen that one edge 
of the groove is smooth and the other edge is splintery. 
Be sure and hold the plane up close against the work so 
that the groove will be at all places equally distant from 
the edge; also be careful that the plane is vertical, other- 
wise there will be trouble in putting in the panel. After 
the pieces are grooved they may be cut apart and mortised- 
and-tenoned. The long pieces are called stiles, and the 
short ones rails. The mortises are cut in the stiles, and the 
tenons on the rails. The mortises should coincide with 



62 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

the grooves, and a short portion of the tenon called a relish 
must be left as long as the depth of the groove and extend- 
ing to the outer edge of the rail. (See Fig. 40.) This 



Fig.XUv 


I 1 RELISH 







piece is necessary to fill up the part of the groove between 
the mortise and the end of the stile. 

Put the frame together and make the panel f "longer and 
wider than the space inside the frame. That will leave \" 
for it to swell on account of the dampness. The panel 
should be rabbeted about an inch wide to fit the groove. 
The rabbet should not be as deep at its inner edge as at the 
edge of the board, as may be seen by examination of any 
door. It may be rabbeted on both sides if preferred. It 
must be thinner at the edge than the width of the groove, 
or it will split when it is driven in, since it is tapering. 
(See Fig. 41.) 



Fig.XLl 




Beginning one inch from the inside corner, the rails and 
stiles may be chamfered and add somewhat to the appear- 
ance. To do this the frame must be taken apart. Mark 
with a gauge \" from the edge on adjacent sides to within 
■J-" of the end of the chamfer. With a chisel begin back |-" 



CONSTRUCTION OF FRAME. 63 

beyond the lines and cut down to the gauge-marks and fol- 
low along, taking off a piece of triangular section from the 
corner, not all at one cut, but with several. The oblique 
cut down to the gauge-marks may be straight or curved; if 
straight it is a bevel, if curved an ogee. Great care must 
be exercised in this work not to cut too deep, and the 
grain must be observed and the cut made in such a way 
that the wood will not splinter. In cutting the rabbet 
across the end, mark it out with the square and cut down 
with a knife, and have the plane very sharp, or use a chisel, 
as in making a half-joint. Nail a cleat across near the 
end to guide the knife and the plane. 

Tests. — Is the frame the same width at each end ? Is 
the frame square ? Does the frame lie flat ? Are the sur- 
faces of the rails and stiles parallel ? Does the panel fit 
at all parts of the frame ? Is the raised part of the panel 
square ? Does the relish fill the groove ? Are all the 
mortise-and-tenon joints perfect ? 

The frame may be fastened together with glue or pins. 
Do not glue the panel, or it will split when it shrinks. 
Cheap furniture is made without mortising the stiles, the 
tenons being only as long as the depth of the groove, and 
the whole glued together. Such work comes to pieces 
after a little exposure to changes of temperature, moisture, 
and dryness. 

When a pupil becomes very skilful he may make a 
model of a door with four panels. Doors are now mostly 
made by machinery, and the stiles are left a little long to 
prevent marring the rails as they are handled. This extra 
length is sawed off after the doors are thoroughly sea- 
soned, when they are fitted. Instead of cutting the inside 



6 4 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



of the frame square the edges may be bevelled. In this 
case it is necessary to mitre the bevelled part. 

Lesson XLIV. — To make a shoe-blacking stool. 

Working Drawing. — An end view (see Fig. 42). This 




Fl^-YJLU. 




Scale i" = 1". 

represents one end view, showing the end of the foot-rest, 
the ends of the covers (hinged at the top), and the form of 



CONSTRUCTION OF STOOL. 65 



the end pieces, which may be varied to suit the fancy of 
the maker. 

Material. — Two pieces 15" long and 12" wide for the 
ends; one piece 11!" long, 11" wide, for bottom; two 
pieces Hi" long, 8" wide, for side pieces; two pieces 13" 
long, 5|" wide, for covers; one piece 11" long, 4" wide, 
for piece to hinge the covers to ; one piece 6" wide, 13" 
long, for foot-rest. All of \" stuff. 

Directions. — Get out all the pieces with the edges square 
with the sides, except the covers, which may have the 
front edges rounded and the other bevelled to fit the top. 
One or both of these covers may be hinged. It will be 
observed by the measurements that the box is to be 12" 
long, that the bottom and sides are to be inserted into 
rabbets \" deep in the ends, and that the covers and foot- 
rest extend over \". The curves at the bottom may be 
cut with a keyhole saw and made smooth with a rasp. Put 
in the bottom and top board and nail firmly together with 
1|" finish nails. It is well to finish the end pieces fas- 
tened together, in order that they may be alike. Care must 
be exercised to have a good true piece that is not warped 
for the bottom, or the stool will not set down on the 
floor firmly. Unless the lumber is first-class it might be 
better not to rabbet for the bottom, but to fasten the bot- 
tom firmly to one end and then put one nail through the 
other end into the bottom. Then set the stool on to a 
plane board or the floor, and mark on the inside of the end 
which has only one nail in it. Then nail the bottom in 
place, putting in first one nail part way and trying to see 
if it is right and if it is nailing firmly. In this way it is 
easy to put the stool together true. If the side pieces are 



66 LESSON'S IN WOOD-WORKING. 

warped, put them on in such a way that the unevenness 
of one will counteract that of the other. The stool after 
completion should be sand-papered with fine paper, when 
it may be stained and Tarnished. The main thing to be 
observed is to have the stool stand firmly on all four legs, 
and to have the covers shut evenly. Of course the side 
pieces must be gotten out square, or the thing will not be 
upright. 

Lessok XLV.— To make a step-ladder. Height of lad- 
der about four feet, number of steps, five. 

Working Plan.— End view. (See Fig. 43.) 

Material — Two pieces of \" stuff, 6" wide, 4 T ^ feet 
long; 7 feet of |" stuff, 7 inches wide, for steps; two pieces 
for supports, -J"x2", and 4 feet long; two braces, l"xi", 
and 4 feet long; two 2" screws, nails, screws, etc; two 
pieces of wire 4 feet long to brace the steps; two wires 2 
feet long for hooks; four screw eyes. The two wires for 
hooks may be the size of a water-pail bail, the two for 
braces about one half as large. 

Directions. — Get out the two side pieces and lean one 
of them up against a wall, so that, when the upper edge 
touches the wall, the bottom will be 30" from the wall. 
One corner will then be up above the floor, as shown in 
Fig. 43. 

Set a pair of compasses with the points as far apart as this 
corner is above the floor. Draw them along with one point 
on the floor and the other on the side of the board. (This 
process is called scribing.) The point will make the line 
cibj along which the line is to be sawed. Eeverse the piece 
so cut off and use it as a pattern to cut off the top of the 
board. Out off the other side board of the same shape, 



CONSTRUCTION OF STEP-LADDER. 



6 7 



using the first as a pattern. Set the bevel (Fig. 57) at an 
angle like that at the corner a or b. Subtract 4f " from 



£^_ 








Ft'q*xun. 



the length of the line ac, and divide the remainder by 5 ; 
this will give the distance between the steps. Lay off the 



6S LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING, 

lines for the under side of the lower step, and \" above an- 
other line parallel for the upper side. Do the same for the 
succeeding steps. Eabbet for the insertion of the steps f " 
deep. Cut the lower and upper step each 18" long; lightly 
tack in the lower step and put the upper step on top of the 
side boards, allowing it to extend oyer 1" at each end. This 
makes the steps taper properly, and the frame should now 
be adjusted to have the angle the same at each end of the 
lower step. The length and angle can now be obtained for 
sawing off each of the other steps. Lay the edge of the 
board for the step against the side pieces and mark with a 
pencil; then mark with a try- square on both sides of the 
board. Hold the saw at such an angle that the step will 
fit at the upper and under side. Try the steps first to see 
if all goes together well, then nail lightly at first, and after 
adjusting nail firmly. The pieces for support may now be 
gotten out and tapered until they are only an inch wide 
at the lower end. One may be used as a straight-edge to 
mark the other with. The top of each is to be rounded and 
bored with a hole countersunk to receive a screw, about 
which it turns. This screw is firmly driven into the side 
pieces in such a way as to allow the supports to turn freely 
without hitting the top step. Shut these supports until 
their back edges and the corresponding edges of the 
ladder coincide, and then screw on the braces diagonally. 
Two long hooks of wire, d, are to be pivoted on to the side 
pieces to hook into staples or screw-eyes on the supports, 
to keep them from shutting when the ladder is in use. 
Extra staples may be put into the side pieces to hold these 
hooks when the ladder is not in use and the supports are 
closed. If the ladder does not seem perfectly firm, two 



CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT STAND. 69 

wires may be stretched diagonally across the back side to 
stiffen it. The front of each step may be half rounded if 
desired. Have the supports spread a little beyond a point 
vertically under the screw about which they turn, in order 
that the ladder may not tip up when in use. Do not have 
the top step project over the back side. The top step may 
be an inch wider than the other if desired. 

Lesson XL VI. — To make a plant-stand. 

Working Plan. — A front, side, and end view — pupil's 
design. 

Material. — The size and height of the stand will be 
determined by the place in which it is to stand and the 
number of plants it is to hold. Supposing it is to hold a 




Scafe y r ''=. / 



box 30" long and 8" wide, the top may be of that size 
and the frame of the table should be 2" narrower and 6" 
shorter. Make the legs of pine, \\" square, chamfered to 
within 6" of the top. The frame should be of 4"x|-" 
stuff, and may be mortised or do welled into the legs. The 
pieces should set in \ n . The legs should spread so that 
the width between them at the bottom is 8". To get the 
bevel for this lay off on the floor two lines 6" apart at 
right angles to the wall ; lay the legs on these lines and 
then spread them 2" at the bottom. Then set the bevel 
between the wall and a leg ; this is to be used for marking 



yo LESSORS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

the end pieces. The side pieces being marked in the same 
way will give the legs a spread in the other direction. The 
frame is to be fastened to the top by four screws put up 
through the inside of the side pieces, as shown in Fig. 44, 
at a, b, c. 

Tests. — Does it stand squarely on all four legs ? Are 
the lower ends of opposite legs the same distance apart ? 
Do the legs spread equally? 

Lesson XLVIL— To make a drawer 15" long, 8" wide, 
and 3" deep. 

Working Plan. — End view, top view. 

Material.— One piece 8" long, 3" wide, I" thick, for the 
front; one piece 7f " long, 2§" wide, \" thick, for the 
back; two pieces 15" long, 3" wide, and |" thick, for the 
sides; one piece 14" wide, 1\" long, |" thick, for the bot- 
tom. The front may be of walnut or other hard wood; the 
rest of pine or white-wood, which is much used for this 
purpose. 

Directions.— Plane the front smooth and gauge on the 
end \" from the front face. Gauge on the back side \ n 
from the end. Plane the sides and groove them on the in- 
side at the bottom with a \ n groove, \ n deep, the inside 
edge of which is ■§-" from the lower edge of the pieces. 
Out rabbets \ n wide across the inner ends, w T hose outer 
edge is f " from the back end of the side pieces. Put the 
side and front pieces together with a half -blind dovetail 
(Lesson XXXIV). Fasten the back piece into the rabbets, 
having the upper edges even and the lower edge just to the 
top of the groove for the bottom. Rabbet the under side 
of the ends and front edge of the bottom, and slide it into 
the groove and fasten it near the front end with brads. If 



CONSTRUCTION OF DRAWER. 7 1 

it is difficult to get a board wide enough, glue two pieces 
together. If it is only fastened at the front, it will slide 
in the grooves as it shrinks and swells, while, if it is fast- 
ened at both ends, it will split as it shrinks. The reason 
for putting in the bottom this way of the grain is, that, if 
the grain ran lengthwise, when the bottom swelled it would 
crowd out the sides and so make the drawer rub hard. 
Moisture and dryness affect lumber much more in width 
than in length. 

Tests. — Are the upper surfaces of the sides parallel ? If 
not, the drawer will not slide easily. Are the sides parallel ? 
If not, they will fit too loosely in one part, and bind in 
another. Is the angle between the front and the sides a 
right angle both ways ? If not, the front will not be even 
with the front of the piece of furniture into which the 
drawer slides. 

To make a slide for the drawer, for instance, under the 
work-bench, take two pieces of \" stuff an inch longer than 
the drawer and 1" wider than the side pieces. From one 
corner of each piece cut a square \ n on each side a, 
(Fig. 44). This is to receive the ends of a f" square 
pieces 9-g-" long, which goes under the front of the drawer 
to support it. The dotted line (Fig. 44) represents a cleat 
y square, which is fastened with screws or nails and glue 
to the inner side of each piece and upon which the drawer 
glides. 

At a, b, and c a notch is made to allow a screw to be put 
up through each piece into the bottom of the bench. The 
straight part of this notch is made with a knife, deep in 
the middle, and the rest with a gouge. (If such a notch 
is not familiar it may be seen on the under side of any 



72 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

table.) After the notch is made, bore a hole up through to 
receive a screw. Decide where the drawer is to be and 
screw one piece firmly in place. Then put the drawer in 
place, and the other piece with a thin piece of pasteboard 
(box coyer) between it and the side of the drawer. Now 
cut off the piece that is to go into the notches just the 
right length, and fasten it in place with screws. Instead 
of making notches for the screws in the side pieces it is 
sometimes best on narrow pieces to bore a \" hole to with- 
in an inch of the upper edge and finish with a smaller 
hole for the screw which is then put in, the \" hole allow- 
ing the screw-driver to follow it up. A better finish is 
made for the front, also, by not cutting the notches for the 
front piece underneath, but putting pieces of the same 
thickness on to the front of the side pieces. In this way 
no end grain of wood is exposed. The pasteboard at the 
side being removed, the drawer will be found to have just 
about enough play to allow it to slide easily. A picture- 
knob may be screwed on for a drawer pull, or if there is a 
turning-lathe one may be turned. 

Lesson XL VIII. — To make a bookcase. The bookcase 
described is designed to stand on the back of a study table 
against the wall, and the length of the shelves will depend, 
of course, on the length of the table. It can be made 
with only two shelves if desired, and the height thus re- 
duced 8 inches. The side pieces may be made of black 
walnut, and the shelves may be stained and have a thin 
strip of walnut in front, or the whole may be made of 
different wood and stained or not, according to the taste 
of the maker. Size of bookcase described, 34" high, 36" 
long, 7" deep. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOOK-CASE. 



73 



Working Drawing. — End view, front view. 

Material. — Four pieces for the stiles, 34 
wide, \" thick ; four pieces for rails, 6" 
long, two of them 3" wide and two \\" 
wide, J" thick ; two pieces for panels, 



fl 



23|" long, 5" wide, and \" thick; four 
shelves, 34" long, 7" wide, £" thick; one 
piece of moulding to go around front and 
sides, 52" long; eight 2" roundhead, 
blued screws for the top and bottom 
shelves; eight large screw-eyes to hold up 
the two middle shelves; brads to fasten 
the moulding in place. The space be- 
tween the bottom and second shelf is to 
be 10J", the next space 8J-", and the next 
8", though these can be changed. 

The upper shelf is fastened by screws 
going through the stiles, as shown in Fig e 
45, the lower surface of the shelf being 
on a level with the under side of the 
upper rail. 

The lower shelf may be rabbeted into 
the stiles and rails, in which case it must 
be cut 34J" long. It is fastened by screws 
passing through the stiles and comes down 
even with them. The stiles and rails are 
mortised together as in Lesson XLIII, and 
afterwards are rabbeted to receive the 
panel. The rabbet is on the inside, and 
must be of such a depth that the panel is flush with the 
surface of the stiles on the inside, so that the books will 



long, If 



XLV, 






74 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



not rub against any corner either in coming ont or going 
in. The panel may be rabbeted on the outside or not, 
but the stiles and rails will look better if chamfered, 
and the stiles should be chamfered on the outside front 
corner; also the rails on the outside upper corner. The 
panel may be fastened in with glue and short brads, 
being careful not to have them come through the stiles, 
and setting in the heads so that the books will not be 
scratched by them. 

It is a good plan to fasten two wires diagonally across 
the back, as in the case of the step-ladder, to keep it 
square. At a distance of 9|", 10", 101 18", 181", 19", 
and 19^", bore small holes in the inside of the stiles, 
into which the screw-eyes may be put to hold up the 
two middle shelves. Put the screws clear in and turn 
them so that the shelves may rest on the flat surface of the 
eye. Of course only eight screw-eyes are to be used, and 
these are to be put in where the shelves are wanted, and 
changed as desired. 

The concave curves for the fancy tops of the stiles may 
be made by fastening two together side by side in a vise, 
and boring through with a 1" bit. Turn the pieces over 
so as to make a clean cut on both sides. The other curves 
may be made with shave or chisel. Make a pajoer pattern 
first and use, to have the tops all alike. Put the moulding 
around the front and sides, mitreing the corners. 

Lesson* XLIX. — To make a screen-door. 

Working Drawing.— Front view. 

Material for this will depend on the size of the door. 
The material should be 1-|" thick and 4" wide for the 
stiles and top rail and the mullion, and 6" wide for the 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCREEN DOOR. 75 

lower rail. For the upper rail tlie mortise should be \" wide 
and 3" long, extending within 1" of the top of the stile. 
For the lower rail it may be 4" long, extending to within 
an inch of the end of the stile. The mullion may have a 
short tenon or be put in with dowels. Extreme care is 
necessary in making such a large frame with mortise-and- 
tenon joint to have it true, so that it will shut even. It 
should go just inside the door-casing and have a stop to 
prevent its' shutting in too far. If after the door is made 
the upper corner shuts in too far, put the stop at the top; 
if the lower corner shuts in too far, put the stop at the 
bottom. In this way the door will gradually be brought 
to place. If it shuts even, put the stop at top or bottom, 
or, better, all the way up. 

The screen wire is nailed on and a \ n moulding placed 
over it, mitred at the corners. A piece of moulding 
should be put across the middle of the mullion, and it is 
joined onto the other moulding by a process called coping. 
The moulding is to be cut of such a length that the ends 
extend just to the middle of the moulding ; then cut it in 
such a way that there is a right angle at the middle of the 

end (Fig. 46). With a sharp ^— -. 

knife cut out on the under I XLVI , X 

side of these ends until they 

fit over the moulding. This is better than cutting out a 
notch in the moulding on the stiles, as it is in that case 
liable to break. Get hinges with a loose bolt and fit them 
by marking with gauge and try-square, as explained in 
Lesson L. Get hinges wide enough to bring the bolt out 
so far that the door may swing wide open. A spring to 
close the door may be purchased, and will have with it 
directions for putting it on. 



?6 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

Lessor L. — To make a box 12" long, 8" wide, and 4" 
high, with hinged cover. 

Material. — One piece 4" wide, 41" long, \" thick; two 
pieces 12" long, 8" wide, and \" thick. 

Working Drawing. — A top, side, and end view. 

In making a box with a cover like a trunk cover', it is 
best to make the box and cover all together and saw them 
apart. The piece for the sides and ends must be nicely 
planed with a smoothing-plane, but not sand -papered until 
all work on it with tools is done. The reason for this last 
is that small grains of sand stick into the wood and thus 
dull the tools if they are used on it afterwards. Eabbet 
this piece on one side \ n wide and \ n deep, to set the bot- 
tom up in. Mark with gauge to have it accurate. After 
this cut the sides 12" long and square them accurately, 
and cut the ends 8" long and square them. Make the 
corner joints a combination half and mitre joint, as 
described in Lesson XXXVI. Be sure that the ends of 
the pieces are perfectly square. Sometimes the corre- 
sponding pieces, as the two ends, are clamped together and 
squared in this way, to be sure that they are just alike. Fas- 
ten the sides and ends together with glue or brads. If they 
are fastened with brads the heads should be set in with a 
nail-set and the holes filled up with putty or a little chip 
of wood of the same kind glued in. In this case the grain 
must run the same way as that of the piece. 

While the box is drying it should be fastened with 
clamps or wedged into some place where it will be held 
perfectly true and square. Measure accurately the size of 
the place into which the bottom is to fit, and cut the bot- 
tom to size. If the frame is square it may be laid on to 
the piece for the bottom and the bottom marked directly 



CONSTRUCTION- OF BOX. 77 

from this. This marking should be done with a fine pen- 
cil or knife. Lay the frame on to the piece for the cover 
and mark in the same way. Then gauge the edges of the 
cover in the middle and rabbet one half the thickness, so 
that it will go down into the sides and end just one half its 
thickness. Fasten this and the bottom in place with glue, 
and when the glue is dry, trim the cover just to the sides 
and ends with a very sharp block-plane. Be sure to re- 
member not to plane over the edge when working off the 
end of the cover. Directions for rabbeting across the ends 
are given in Lesson XLIII. Do the work with a chisel, 
and be careful not to cut too deep in the middle. 

With a gauge mark a line 1" from the top of the box 
on the sides and ends ; this is where the box and cover 
are to be cut apart. Fasten the box into a vise, with the 
jaws parallel and against the top and bottom, and with a 
fine saw cut down through one side, having the saw nearly 
parallel with the side you are at work upon. Be sure and 
have the saw vertical and only cut one side at a time. 
Turn the box over away from you, and continue to cut the 
other sides until the cover comes off ; then carefully 
plane the cut surfaces just as little as possible, to get 
them smooth. Do not let the saw cut down into the fur- 
ther side, for then it is liable not to run straight. It is 
best to practise cutting crayon boxes in two until you are 
sure of doing a neat job, before beginning on this box. 

Get a pair of \ n hinges and shutting one of them together, 
take a trifle less than half its thickness with the gauge. Two 
inches from the ends of the box and cover, gauge very 
lightly outside and inside of the box and outside of the 
cover lines as long as the hinges are. The end of the 



78 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING, 

gauge-bar may be too long to allow of gauging the inside 
of the cover. With a pair of clamps fasten the box and 
cover together, with the cover wide open and the hinge 
surfaces parallel and even. Mark with a try-square just 
where the hinges are to come. Cut down with a saw and 
chisel to the gauge-marks on both box and cover. Be- 
move the clamp, but clamp the box and cover together 
again with a piece of pasteboard between. Now screw on 
the hinges, making a small hole for the screws and being 
sure that the bolt of the hinge is exactly over the crack 
between the box and cover. Put only one screw in 
each side of each hinge, and then try and see if the box 
shuts evenly on all sides. If it does, put in the rest of the 
screws. If it does not, put in the other screws in such a 
way as to obviate the difficulty, first taking out the former 
screws and filling up the holes by driving a splinter in. 
The cover may be fastened by hooks bought at a hardware 
store or by a lock which must be set into the wood. In- 
spection of some work-box or writing-desk will show how 
this is to be done. If the box has been made of pine or 
some light wood it may be stained and varnished. 

After varnishing, it may be rubbed dow r n with pulver- 
ized pumice-stone and water on a piece of felt tacked on to 
a block convenient to hold in the fingers. This takes off 
the uneven surface of the varnish and makes an " oil finish." 

Tests. — Is every corner square ? Are the corner joints 
all perfect ? Does the cover fit evenly ? Does the cover 
shut closely ? Is the whole surface smooth ? 

The last two lessons, of course, are applications of prin- 
ciples previously taught and will be used according to the 
time, taste, and ability of the pupil. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOX, ETC. 79 

A great many other things may be constructed by the 
ingenious pupil, especially if he is pursuing the study 
of physics ; and many pieces of simple apparatus can be 
made. Among the easier pieces of apparatus may be men- 
tioned : 

Equilibrium bodies — viz., a square, a triangle, and an 
oblong made of \" stuff. These should have holes bored 
at the corners and middle to show centre of gravity and line 
of direction, and may be hung on a wire nail driven through 
a thin board fastened to a 6" square base for a standard. 

Blackburn's pendulum, directions for making and using 
of which may be found in Mayer's " Sound." 

Levers to show static laws of the lever. These may 
have small screw-eyes put in at intervals, and for weights 
use sheets of lead 1" square, with holes in one corner. 
The levers may be hung on a suitable frame. 

Compound lever; wheel and axle; windlass; inclined 
plane; wedge-pulleys; wood hydrometers, weighted with 
lead and varnished ; water-wheel ; barometer-board ; lifting- 
pump, argand-lamp chimney for barrel, and spools wound 
with candle wicking for the upper " box." A marble to 
drop into a hole in a cork at the lower end makes a good 
lower "box." 

Telephones, microphones, and all sorts of electrical in- 
struments may be made with a little skill and as much 
training as has been outlined in this little manual. For 
descriptions of simple home-made electrical apparatus, see 
Bottone's " Electrical Instrument Making." 



SO LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



ABOUT TOOLS. 

1. All schools usually must start manual training on as 
economical a basis as possible. It is therefore necessary 
that the teacher should be something of a mechanic him- 
self : to have some knack with tools will greatly aid. A 
teacher of physics is generally qualified in this way. 

To start with, have a carpenter build one good bench as 
a pattern for future ones; for the others a plank put upon 
" horses/' with their ends against the wall of the room 
will answer. Among a dozen pupils there will always be 
found several who can soon be set at work; by following 
directions and the pattern, the other five benches may be 
made. The benches should have a vise at each end on 
opposite sides. The screws for these vises may be bought 
at the hardware store, and the jaws should be as long as 
the bench is tall, and be just even with the top of the 
bench. 

TOOLS NEEDED. 

2. Upon each bench or hanging near it should be the 
following tools (the usual cost is given for convenience) : 



ABOUT TOOLS. 8 1 



1 14" back-saw $1 50 

1 jack-plane 75 

1 sraoothing-plane 1 00 

1 try-square, 6" blade 25 

1 set firmer socket-chisels, 1", J", J", i" 1 05 

1 claw-hairmier 65 

1 screw-driver 20 

1 gauge 15 

2 vises before mentioned , , 1 20 

Material for bencli 1 50 



Total cost $8 25 

For every two benches there should be in addition : 

1 26" rip-saw $2 00 

1 26" hand-saw 1 75 

1 block-plane 1 00 

1 shave 75 

1 Bit-brace-light , 35 

1 oil-stone 25 

1 set bits, |", i", |", i", i" : 1 25 

1 knife, two blades 40 



Total $7 75 

For every six benches there should be : 

1 carpenter's square , $1 50 

1 long jointer 1 50 

1 pair match -planes 2 50 

2 rabbets 1 50 

1 grind-stone « 3 00 

Sundries, drills, bits, auger, scratch-awls, etc 5 00 

Total , $15 00 

Six times cost of each bench 49 50 

Three times cost for each two benches. 23 25 

Total cost for class of 12 .,.,,.,,,,, $87 70 



82 LESSONS IN WOOD-V/ORKING. 

Twelve pupils is all one man can conveniently instruct 
at once; if there are more, then another division should be 
formed. 

A very desirable thing is an anvil with vise attachment, 
$3.00, and a turning-lathe, the castings for which can be 
got for $5.00 and upwards; the frame can be made by the 
pupils. A glue-pot is desirable, but one can be made with 
a tin can inside of another. 

The above is an estimate of what is desirable to have for 
a class of twelve, but many teachers will be obliged to get 
along with less than the above ; it will be found that much 
can be done with possibly two thi:ds of the above list. It 
is generally agreed that instruction should take the form 
of class work partly, and this be followed by personal 
direction, supervision, and inspection. One lesson once 
in ten days or two weeks is a good proportion for class 
work. 

SHAKPENIKG TOOLS. 

3. The apprentice is not allowed for a long time to 
sharpen tools or even to touch the grindstone except to turn 
it. Yet this is so important that the pupil must early 
learn to keep his tools in good condition. The best way 
at first seems to be to have the tools sharpened by a skil- 
ful mechanic; gradually let the pupils try their hands at 
the simple ones, as narrow chisels, as they become dull. 
The pupil must be taught the theory of the cutting-tool, 
the wedge, and he should be shown the angle at which 
different kinds of tools are sharpened. The difference 
between the proper edge of a razor and a wood-working 
tool, as a knife, must be shown; the former has a straight 



ABOUT TOOLS. 



S3 



bevel (it is sometimes concave), and the latter is first 
ground to a straight bevel and then rubbed on an oil-stone 
to make a short bevel, as shown in Fig. 47, Care must be 




Fri. 

XLVh 



taken in grinding and whetting not to wear off the 
corners. The aim must be to keep the tools square across 
the edge. If the knife were sharpened like the razor it 
would run into the wood and also the edge would turn 
over. 

In holding the chisel upon the grindstone, most people 




desire a guide to keep the bevel at the same angle. For 
first-class work the chisel is held rigidly in a clamp, which 
allows it to be moved from side to side across the face of 



8 4 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



the stone, but not back and forth. Ordinary shops are not 
fitted with grindstones having such attachments. In 
grinding, it is customary to have a rest for the chisel, 
which is held from moving backwards by pressing the fin- 
gers which hold it against the front of the rest. (See 
Fig. 48.) 

In using the oil-stone, care should be taken not to rock 
the chisel nor to make a bevel on the flat side. In sharp- 
ening gouges or curved tools, care must be taken to move 
the tool across the face of the stone in order not to make 
grooves in the face of the stone. In grinding all tools 
except those with a very blunt edge, as cold chisels, the 
stone should be turned towards the edge to avoid a wire 
edge, which even then will sometimes appear and must be 
removed by drawing the edge across a piece of wood paral- 
lel with the direction of the edge. (Fig. 49.) 

4. To file saws, they 
are held near their 
teet hin an iron clamp. 
The teeth should first 
be breasted down by 
drawing a flat file 
lightly over their ends 
until they are all of a 
length. An old file is 

generally used for this purpose to avoid tak- 
ing off too much. In sharpening saws the 
file is held in such a way that the front bevel 
of one tooth and the back bevel of the one 
before it are filed at the same time, half of 
the filing being done on one side of the saw 
and half on the other. When the file makes the least pos* 




LI 



ABOUT TOOLS. 85 



sible noise, it is being held in the right position. The 
file should cut most on the back of the tooth. Saws with 
coarse teeth and saws for soft wood need to be set before 
filing. There are various kinds of sets, but the best is 
something like a pair of pincers, and can be adjusted to 
set fine or coarse. After the saw is set and filed it is 
sometimes " breasted " on each side in order to remove the 
slight inequalities of the teeth. Examination and com- 
parison of the bevels on the teeth of splitting and cutting- 
off saws will show that they are filed by holding the file 
somewhat differently. 

The teeth of the rip-saw are longer and the front edge 
is more nearly perpendicular to the length of the blade, 
and they have but little bevel. 



Use of Tools. 



SAWS. 



5. The ripsaw is used to split pieces lengthwise, and the 
piece is laid over two " horses," the end at which the saw- 
ing is to be done projecting over beyond the horse. The 
workman stands on the left side of the piece and puts his 
right knee on the board just back of the front horse. The 
thumb of the left hand should be put down to the mark to 
guide the saw in starting. The saw should be held at an 
angle of about 45° with the length of the board, and care 
must be exercised to keep it perpendicular with the width 
of the board. Slow, long strokes must be used, not bear- 
ing down on the saw, but rather holding it up a little at the 
start, the first stroke being a drawing instead of a pushing 



86 LESSON'S IN WOOD-WORKING- 

stroke. As the saw gets along, the front horse may be 
moved backwards or the board pushed ahead to prevent 
sawing the horse, until too much of the board hangs over 
in front, when the front horse may be moved up in front 
and the saw go down between the two horses. 

To finish sawing, the last end of the board may be 
moved over the end of the back horse to let the saw go by 
and not cut the horse. If the board springs together and 
pinches the saw it is customary to thrust a wedge or screw- 
driver blade into the channel or kerf made by the saw. 

Sometimes it is convenient to saw the board half-way 
and then begin at the other end; it will then be observed 
that in sawing from the butt to the tip of a tree the channel 
opens, but in sawing the other way it pinches. 

Small pieces are held in the vise where the rip-saw is 
employed. 

The cutting-off saw is used with large pieces on the 
horses, or with small pieces on the bench, in the manner to 
be described with the back-saw. In cutting off a long piece 
the left hand should be put around in front of the right 
and grasp the piece about to fall before it is ready to drop, 
or it will split off a bad piece. After this has been neg- 
lected once, the caution will be better understood. 

The hacksaw is for fine sawing, having, as its name im- 
plies, a back to stiffen it, because the blade is so thin. It 
is nearly always used with the work held in a vise or 
against a bench-hook or dog. 

The Bench Hook. — The pupil may make a bench hook (see Fig. 50) 
the first day by nailing cleats across the ends on opposite sides of a 
board a foot long and three inches wide. The edge of one cleat rests 



ABOUT TOOLS. %7 



against the front edge of the work-bench, and the work is pressed 
against the other cleat. 

The work should be held firmly against the hook in such 
a position that the saw will just escape the right-hand 
edge of it; the thumb of the left hand should be placed 
down to the mark to guide the saw in starting; the further 



A 



L. 



nC 



I r 



end of the saw should be a little lower and start in first 
just to the right of the mark; long, slow strokes must be 
used, as before said, not bearing down on the saw. As the 
saw works down and gets to the edge of the block next 
the workman, the attention should be turned from the 
mark on top to the mark on the front edge, down which 
the saw must be carefully guided. When the piece is nearly 
off, ease up on the saw in order that the stick may not be 
split off. 

For sawing off a stick it should always be marked on the 
top and front edge with a try-square, as will presently be 
explained. 

Beginners are usually afraid to place the saw against 
the thumb, for fear of being cut; but examination will show 
that the sharp part of the teeth comes below the flesh of 
the thumb, and the saw cannot cut if the teeth are held 
against the thumb. If, however, the thumb is placed a little 
way from the saw, it is liable to slip, and then the thumb 
will be cut. 



88 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



THE TRY-SQUARE. 

6. The try-square (see Fig. 51), as its name implies, is to 
test work to see if it is square, and also for marking lines on 
narrow pieces, perpendicular to the edge. The blade is 
also used to test for flatness. For testing for squareness the 
handle or thick part is placed against one of the two sur- 
faces to be tested, and the blade against the other, and then 
the work is held between the workman and the light to see 
if the surface under the blade is true, and square with the 
other surface. In marking with a try -square, care should 
be taken not to let the pressure of the mark- 
ing instrument at the end of the blade 
move the handle away from the surface 
against which it rests, and so fail to get a 
perpendicular line. 

A sharp knife or 
pencilistobedrawn C 
along the edge A 



and pressure ap- 



T*Ll. 



B 



plied with the left thumb at B to keep the handle down 
close to the wood. (Fig. 51.) 



CHISELS. 



7. Chisels are either heavy, called " framer," or light, 
called " firmer." The latter either have a tang to be in- 
serted into a handle, or have a socket into which the handle 



ABOUT TOOLS, 



8 9 



is driven. The socket firmer chisel is best adapted for 
the work here described. When used to 
smooth a surface it is held with the flat 
side next the surface to be smoothed, un- 
less much material is to be removed, in 
which case it is used the other side up. 
The handle is grasped in the right hand 
and the blade with the left, often near 
the work to prevent the chisel slipping too 
far into the material. Instead of push- 
ing the chisel straight ahead, it should 
be moved with a " drawing " stroke. 
(Fig. 52.) 

In this way it cuts easier and makes 
a smoother stroke. This kind of stroke 
is also used with a knife or shave. For 
cutting across the end and for digging 
out mortises a mallet is used to strike the 
end of the chisel handle. A short, thick 
spatula of hard wood makes a good sub- 
stitute. Further directions for the use of chisels will be 
found in lessons requiring their use. 




THE SHAVE. 

8. The shave is a very wide, short chisel with two han- 
dles, and is pulled towards the operator instead of being 
pushed from him as is an ordinary chisel. It is used 
where considerable material is to be removed, as, for 
instance, from the edge of a board to straighten it or to 
make it narrower, when not enough to saw is to be taken 



go 



LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 



off. Except in the case of a concave curve it is always 
used with the flat side down next to the material, and 
should be held at some other angle than a right angle with 
the work, and a drawing stroke must be given, especially 
on hard wood. (See Fig. 53.) 




PLANES. 

9. A plane is a chisel held in position by a piece of 
wood or iron called the " stock," which keeps the chisel at 
the same angle, and by its under side, called the sole, 
prevents the chisel from going into the wood too far. The 
chisel, also called the " bit " of the plane, has a cap of iron 
on the upper side to turn over and break off the shavings, 
to prevent the wood from splintering when the plane is run 
against the grain. The common planes are the fore-plane, 
for the first planing of a rough board ; the jack-plane, to 
follow this, having a broader chisel, with the edge straight 
instead of curved; the smoothing -plane, very short and 



ABOUT TOOLS. 01 



light, for quick strokes to finish the work; the block-plane, 
for the ends of pieces ; the long-jointer, for making 
straight the edges of boards. There are also rabbet- 
planes to take away part of the thickness of an inch or 
less in width of a board, to make what is called a half- 
joint ; and match-planes to make grooves and tongues to 
match boards together. 

Besides these there is a great variety of moulding- 
planes, "hollows and rounds/' patent ploughs, etc., for 
doing all kinds of fancy work. 

USE OF PLANES. 

10. In using a plane, stand with the right side to the 
bench, the left foot pointing forward, the right towards or 
under the bench, the right hand grasping the handle or 
stock of the plane if a small one, the left grasping over the 
top of the stock in front of the throat if a large one, or 
around the front end if a small one. 

With a large plane put the thumb on the left side of the 
plane stock and the fingers on the right side; the body 
should be braced by the feet, to make a firm, quick stroke. 
The work is held in a vise if it is small, or against the 
bench-stop. Care must be exercised to hold down the 
front end or toe of the plane at the beginning of the 
stroke, and the heel at the end, otherwise the plane will 
stutter at the beginning and take off too thick a shaving 
at the end of the stroke. The plane should be started 
and be under headway before the chisel gets to the work, 
in order that the inertia of the plane and the operator's 
body may carry the plane along over the work. In draw- 




g2 LESSONS IN WOOD-WORKING. 

ing back the plane over rough or hard boards it is cus- 
tomary to turn the plane on one edge, or lift up the heel, 
in order not to dull the chisel. With clean, and especially 
soft wood, it is easier to sharpen the chisel oftener, and not 
bother to raise it in drawing back. The rabbet-plane often 
has a movable piece called a fence on the sole, which 
can be adjusted to make the rabbet the 
right width (see Fig. 55). Sometimes there 
is no fence, or the rabbet is to be cut not at 
the edge of a board, and in that case the plane 
is guided by a cleat lightly nailed on to the 
I 1 work. 

In using the block-plane across the grain, care must be 
exercised not to plane over the further edge of the board, 
for a piece will certainly split off. Plane towards the 
middle always, and with the chisel at an acute angle, so as 
to give a drawing stroke, otherwise the surface will be 
rough. 

In using the long jointer 'to " shoot " the edge of a board, 
the board is fastened into the vise and the rear end propped 
up with a pin stuck through the front board of the bench. 
The left hand grasps the stock of the plane with the fin- 
gers underneath on the sole, serving to guide the plane on 
the board. The operator walks along in front of the board. 
The pupil should be shown how to set the plane iron in or 
out by striking the stock on the top or heel to draw the iron, 
and how to drive in the iron or move it to one side if one 
corner digs in too much. For this kind of work the 
ordinary plane that is set with a hammer is less trouble- 
some than the patent ones which set with a screw or levers. 



ABOUT TOOLS. 93 



Planes should never be laid on the bench with the sole 
down, as it is liable to be scratched or the iron dulled. 

Note. — A plane is said to be set "fine" when it takes off only a 
thin shaving, and l ' rank " when it cuts a thick shaving. 

BE^CH STOP. 

11. One of the best and simplest bench-stops is made by 
taking a piece of strap-iron -J-" thick, 1" wide, and 6" 
long. File one end sharp like a chisel, and then file 
notches with the edge of a flat file; two holes should be 
drilled in the iron 1" from each end and countersunk for 
screws. A groove is cut in the bench just deep enough to 
sink the iron in, and the back screw is put in tight, the 
piece of iron being bent a little to cause the front end to 
spring up. This front end is now adjusted as wanted by 
the front screw. Such a stop does not easily get out of 
repair. When a stick is to be planed its front end is 
driven up against the stop (see Fig. 54) hard enough so it 



=f=F 



J mg.uv. 



1 



will not slip back when the plane is drawn back over it. 



HAMMERS. 



12. Hammers are classed as claw or piece. The claw- 
hammer is used for driving nails and drawing the same; 
the piece-hammer is used for riveting and for other work on 
metal. The piece is the chisel-shaped part at the back and 
may extend parallel with the handle, when it is called 



94 LESSON'S IN WOOD- WORKING. 

straight, or it may extend at right angles, w^en it is called 
cross. It may also be spheroidal, when it is called a ball 
piece-hammer. 

THE MALLET AKD HATCHET. 

13. The mallet and hatchet in their manner of using may 
be classed as hammers. Three movements are used in 
striking : the wrist movement, for light blows with a small 
hammer; the elbow movement, for ordinary blows; and the 
whole-arm movement, for very heavy blows. The pupil 
should practise striking the smooth surface of a board till he 
can make a dent of uniform depth all around. Then he 
should drive nails through a board a little thinner than 
the length of the nails, being careful not to leave any 
marks on the boards with the hammer; afterwards these 
nails should be driven back and drawn with the hammer. 
In drawing nails care must be used to put a block under 
the head of the hammer, that the nail may not be bent or 
the handle strained in drawing large nails. 

14. Practice in scoring and splitting with a hatchet may 
follow. The different kinds of nails should be shown and 
the way to drive nails to prevent splitting. Brads and 
finish nails should be shown and the process of setting in 
the heads, also the clinching of nails, blind-nailing, toe- 
nailing, etc. 

BITS AKD DEILLS. 

15. Probably no other simple tool has passed through 
such a complete evolution as the boring tool. From the 
simple brad-awl which makes a hole by pushing aside the 



ABOUT TOOLS. , 9$ 



fibres of the wood, or oftener by splitting, to the expan- 
sive bit which bores holes from five eighths of an inch to 
three inches in diameter, the whole way is filled with 
different boring tools adapted for every different kind of 
work. 

Boring tools may be divided into three classes — those 
which remove none of the wood, those which remove part 
of the wood, and those which remove all. Those which 
remove none of the wood are the brad-awl and pod or quill 
bit. The brad-awl is used in softwood, whose fibres easily 
move aside to allow the awl to enter. If the awl is put 
with the edge across the grain it will cut the fibres without 
splitting. Sometimes the awl is driven in with the hammer 
and sometimes pushed with the hand with a twisting 
motion. The pod or quill bit cuts the fibres but does not 
remove the chips, which must be removed by drawing out 
the bit occasionally. Of the second class, which removes 
a part of the chips, are the various forms of gimlets, twist- 
drills, etc. 

The gimlet has a screw-point which draws it into the 
wood; this screw-point is liable to split hard and thin 
woods, and must be used with caution; also, the gimlet 
must be removed once in a while to withdraw the chips, 
and at best the gimlet is a slow-working tool. The twist- 
drill is, all things considered, one of the most valuable 
boring tools; especially the small sizes, which fit into a drill- 
stock. Being all the way of the same size, the hardest and 
most fissile, woods can be bored without splitting. The 
ordinary auger-bit is probably the most used of any boring 
tool. The pupil should learn how to put it into a brace, how 
to hold the brace, how to put the work into the vise to 



g6 LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING. 

prevent splitting, and cautioned to put a block behind the 
piece he is boring to prevent splintering when the bit 
comes through. 

A very useful tool for screw-holes is a short pod-bit with 
an enlargement, called a countersink, for making the cup- 
shaped cavity for the head of a screw. This tool obviates 
the necessity of changing from a bit to a countersink in 
boring for screws. A little instruction in this connection 
may be given in regard to drilling and reaming metals, as 
the ability to do this is often useful in making simple ap- 
paratus. The expansion-bit will be found a valuable tool, 
as with it holes may be made of different sizes, and many 
pieces of apparatus may be made if such a tool is at hand. 

THE SCREW-DRIVER. 

16. The screw-driver should be held in a line with the 
screw, and the end that fits into the slot in the screw should 
not taper much, for then it will slip out of the slot when 
the screw turns hard. Practice should enable the pupil to 
keep the driver on the screw, allowing the end of the handle 
to turn in the palm of the hand, while with a wrist move- 
ment he turns the hand back to get a new hold on the 
handle far enough around to give the driver one half a turn. 
Be sure and work at this until you are able to turn in a 
screw without taking the point of the screw-driver out of 
the slot or allowing it to slip out. 

THE GAUGE. 

17. The gauge is used to draw a line parallel with the 
edge of a stick, called the working face, and the head is set 



ABOUT TOOLS. g? 



at the proper distance from the spur and held in place with 
a thumb-screw. Gauges w T ith two bars should be used, so 
that they will not have to be changed in marking out a 
mortise-and-tenon joint. The gauge is held in the right 
hand and either pushed or drawn, care being exercised to 
have the head rest closely against the side of the stick. 
Also, the gauge should be turned so that the spur only 
makes a slight mark at first. It may then be drawn over 
the work again. The gauge should run on the bar as its 
support, and not on the spur. It is often best, especially 
for beginners, to put the work in the vise and hold the 
gauge with both hands, not for the purpose of making a 
heavy mark, but for the purpose of making a light one. 
A cleat may be nailed one inch from the right-hand end of 
the bench, running across the end, against which the piece 
is held while being gauged. As a pencil is never held up- 
right to draw a line, so do not move the gauge along with 
the spur at right angles to the direction of motion, but 
turn the gauge so that the point will be drawn along and 
make a smooth line. That face against which the head of 
the gauge rests is gauged from; the one on which the line 
is drawn is gauged on. 

THE KNIFE. 

18. The knife for the use required should be a large 
two-bladed knife. 

THE T-BEVEL. 

19. This tool is used like a try-square to draw lines 
across the surface of a piece, but not at right angles to 
the adjacent surface (Fig. 57). The blade may be set and 
held in place by the thumb-screw. 



Q8 



LESSONS IN WOOD- WORKING, 



GRAI^ OF WOOD. 

20. A piece of wood, if soaked and pounded, will be 
found to be made up of fibres. The direction and char- 
acter of these fibres constitute the grain of the wood: if the 
fibres run straight, the wood is straight-grained; if crooked, 
it is cross-grained; if the fibres are fine, the wood is fine- 
grained, etc. 

Various peculiar appearances due to the annual growth of 
the trees give rise to the terms silver grain, curled grain, 
birdVeye, etc. Silver grain is due to a special layer of 
cells or fibres, which are found by sawing the wood on 
radial lines, i.e., from centre to circumference; on this 
account such lumber is called " quartered," as quartered 
oak, which is made by splitting the log into four parts 
and then sawing the boards from these quarters. Fibres 
of wood separate more easily lengthwise than across. 




The above figure (Fig. 56) represents a piece in which 
the grain runs down into the wood from B to A. In plan- 
ing such a piece in the direction BA the plane iron would 
have a tendency to run in, and as soon as the sole of the 
plane stopped it the shaving would break off, leaving the 
surface rough. Planing in this direction is called " work- 
ing against the grain," while working from A to B is with 



ABOUT TOOLS. 



99 



the grain and leaves the surface smooth. The cap of the 
plane is to prevent its running in in such timber. Whenever 
it is possible lumber should be worked with the grain. 

SAND-PAPEB. 

19. Sand-paper of various degrees of fineness may be 
obtained from No. to No. 1^. To use, it is wrapped 
around a block of wood convenient to hold in the hand. 
This is then rubbed on the piece to be smoothed. Use 
the coarse first and finish with the fine. Sometimes a piece 
of wood is sand-papered and then its surface dampened. 
After standing until it is thoroughly dry the fibres which 
the dampening raised up may be polished off. 




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THE PRIMARY SUPPLEriENT 

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The Teachers' Institute 

is published monthly, at $125 a year ; 12 large 44 page papers 
constitute a year — most other educational monthlies publish 10, 
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EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 

This is not a paper : it is a series of small monthly volumes 
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want to study the foundations of education ; for Normal Schools, 
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If you desire to teach professionally you will want it. Hand- 
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bert Spencer's famous book on " Education" will be printed 
in it 32 pp. at a time. This alone is worth at least $1.00. 

OUR TIMES. 

Was started two years ago to give a resume oi the important news 
of the month — not the murders, the scandals, etc., but the news 
that bears upon the progress of the world and specially written 
for the schoolroom. In Sept. 1892 it was doubled in size, the 8 
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during tne year would cost at least 50 cents in the cheapest 
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45 




Teachers Manuals Series. 

Each is printed in large, clear type, on good paper. Paper 

cover, price 15 cents; to teach- 
ers y 12 cents; by mail, 1 cent 
extra. 

There is a need of small vol- 
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teachers can carry easily and study 
as they have opportunity. The 
following numbers have been al- 
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It should be noted that while 
our editions of such of these little 
books that are not written specially 
for this series are as low in price 
as any other, the side-heads, top- 
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editor, as well as the excellent 
paper and printing, make them 
far superior in every way to any 
other edition. 

We would suggest that city super- 
intendents oi* conductor's of institutes 

supply each of their teachers with copies of these little books. Special 

rates for quantities. 

No. i. Fitch's Art of Questioning. 

By J. G. Fitch, M.A., author of " Lectures on Teaching." 38 pp. 
Already widely known as the most useful and practical essay on this most 
important part of the teachers' lesson-hearing. 

No. 2. Fitch's Art of Securing Attention. 

By J. G. Fitch, M. A. 39 pp. 

Of no less value than the author's " Art of Questioning." 

No. 3. Sidgwick's On Stimulus in School. 

By Arthur Sidgwick, M.A. 43 pp. 

" How can that dull, lazy scholar be pressed on to work up his lessons 
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No. 4. Yonge's Practical Work in School. 

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By J. G. Fitch, M.A. 25 pp. 

This thoughtful, earnest essay will bring courage and help to many a 
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No. 8. Hughes' How to Keep Order. 

By James L. Hughes, author of " Mistakes in Teaching." 
Mr. Hughes is one of the few men who know what to say to help a young 
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No. 9. Quick's How to Train the Memory. 

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No. 10. Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts. 

By Heinrich Hoffman, a pupil of Froebel. 

The author sets forth very clearly the best methods of using them for 
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No. 11. Sutler's Argument for Manual Training. 

By Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. of N. Y. College for Training of 
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A clear statement of the foundation principles of Industrial Education. 

No. 12. Groff's School Hygiene. 

By Pres. G. G. Groff, of Bucknell University, Pa. 

Nt>. 13. McMurry's How to Conduct the Recitation. 

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In 34 pp. is explained the ideas of the Hubart school of educators as re- 
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No. 14- Carter's Artificial Production of Stupidity 

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This celebrated paper has been so often referred to that we reprint it 
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Reception T)ay. 6 &{os. 

A collection of fresh and original dialogues, recitations, 
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and Private Schools. Bound in handsome, new paper 
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The exercises in these books bear upon education ; have a 
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1. The dialogues, recitations, 
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Demosthenes and Cicero — 
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5. There is not a vicious 
sentence uttered. In some 
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new cover. parents encouraged, or lying 

laughed at. Let teachers look out for this. 

6. There is something for the youngest pupils. 

7. " Memorial Day Exercises " for Bryant, Garfield, Lincoln, 
etc. , will be found. 

8. Several Tree Planting exercises are included. 

9. The exercises have relation to the school-room and bear 
upon education. 

10. An important point is the freshness of these pieces. 
Most of them were written expressly for this collection, and 
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No. 2 Contains 

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12 Declamations. 

17 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 

And for Class Exercise as follows: 

The Bird's Party. 

Indian Names. 

Valedictory. 

Washington's Birthday. 

Garfield Memorial Day. 

Grant " " 

Whittier " 

Sigourney " " 

No. 3 Contains 

Fewer of the longer pieces and more 
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21 Recitations. 

22 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
A Christmas Exercise. 
Opening Piece, and 
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No. 4- Contains 

Campbell Memorial Day. 
Longfellow M " 

Michael Angelo " " 
Shakespeare " " 
Washington " " 
Christmas Exercise. 
Arbor Day " 
New Planting " 
Thanksgiving w * 
Value of Knowledge Exercise. 
Also 8 other Dialogues, 
21 Recitations. 

23 Declamations. 

No. 5 Contains 

Browning Memorial Day. 
Autumn Exercise. 
Bryant Memorial Day. 
New Planting Exercise. 
Christmas Exercise. 
A Concert Exercise. 

24 Other Dialogues. 
16 Declamations, and 
36 Recitations. 

No. 6 Contains 
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young pupils. 
Emerson Memorial Day. 
New Year's Day Exercise. 
Holmes' Memorial Day. 
Fourth of July Exercise. 
Shakespeare Memorial Day. 
Washington's Birthday Exercise. 
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6 Declamations. 
41 Recitations. 

15 Recitations for the Primary Class. 
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Laves Industrial Education. 

Industrial Education ; a guide to Manual Training. By 
Samuel G. Love, principal of the Jamestown, (N. Y.) 
public schools. Cloth, 12mo, 330 pp. with 40 full-page 
plates containing nearly 400 figures. Price, $1.50 ; to 
teachers, $1.20 ; by mail, 12 cents extra. 
1. Industrial Education not understood. Probably the only 
man who has wrought out the problem in a practical way is> 

Samuel G. Love, t*ie superin- 
tendent of the Jamestown (N. 
Y.) schools. Mr. Love has now 
about 2,400 children in the 
primary, advanced, and high 
schools under his charge ; he 
is assisted by fifty teachers, so 
that an admirable opportunity 
was offered, In 1874 (about 
fourteen years ago) Mr. Love 
began his experiment ; gradu- 
alty he introduced one occu* 
pation, and then another, until 
at last nearly all the pupils are 
following some form of educat- 
ing work. 

2. Why it is demanded. The 
reasons for introducing it are 
clearly stated by Mr. Love. It 
was done because the educa-* 
tion of the books left the pu- 
pils unfitted to meet the prac- 
tical problems the world asks them to solve. The world does 
not have a field ready for the student in book-lore. The state- 
ments of Mr. Love should be carefully read. 

3. It is an educational book. Any one can give some 
formal work to girls and boys. What has been needed had 
been some one who could find out what is suited to the little 
child who is in the " First Eeader," to the one who is in the 
"Second Eeader," and so on. It must be remembered the 
effort is not to make carpenters, and type-setters, and dress- 
makers of boys and girls, but to educate them by these occupa* 
tions better than without them* 




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"Paynes Lectures on the Science and 

Art of Education. Beading Circle Edition. By Joseph 
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cation in the College of Preceptors, London, England. 
With portrait. 16mo, 350 pp., English cloth, with gold 
back stamp. Price, $1.00 ; to teachers, 80 cents ; by mail. 
7 cents extra. Elegant new edition from new plates, 

Teachers who are seeking t€ 
know the principles of education 
will find them clearly set forth in 
this volume. It must be remem- 
bered that principles are the basis 
upon which all methods of teach- 
ing must be founded. So valu- 
able is this book that if a teacher 
were to decide to own but three 
works on education, this would 
be one of them. This edition 
contains all of Mr. Payne's writ- 
ings that are in any other Ameri- 
can abridged edition, and is the 
only one with his portrait. It is 
far superior to any other edition 
published. 
Joseph Payne. 

WHY THIS EDITION IS THE BEST 
(1.) The side-titles. These give the contents of the page. 
(2.) The analysis of each lecture, with reference to the educa- 
tional points in it. (3.) The general analysis pointing out the 
three great principles found at the beginning. (4.) The index, 
where, under such heads as Teaching, Education, The Child, 
the important utterances of Mr. Payne are set forth. (5.) 
Its handy shape, large type, fine paper, and press- work and 
tasteful binding. All of these features make this a most val- 
uable book. To obtain all these features in one edition, it 
was found necessary to get out this new edition. 

Ohio Educational Monthly.— "It does not deal with shadowy tneories* 
It is intensely practical." 

Philadelphia Educational Hews.— "Ought to be in library of every 
progressive teacher." 

Educational Courant.— " To know how to teach, more if needed than 
a knowledge of the brandies taught. This is especially valuable." 

Pennsylvania Journal of Education.— " Will be of practical value fei 
Normal Schools and Institute ^ 




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Parkers Talks on Teaching, 

Notes of " lalks on Teaching" given by Col. Francis W. 
Parker (formerly Superintendent of schools of Quincy, 
Mass.), before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, Summer 
of 1882. Reported by Lelia E. Patridge. Square 16mo, 
5x6 1-2 inches, 192 pp., laid paper, English cloth. Price, 
$1.25 ; to teachers, $1.00 ; by mail, 9 cents extra. 
The methods of teaching employed in the schools of Quincy, 
Mass., were seen to be the methods of nature. As they were 
copied and explained, they awoke a great desire on the part 
of those who could not visit the schools to know the underly- 
ing principles. In other words, Colonel Parker was asked to 
explain why he had his teachers teach thus. In the summer 
of 1882, in response to requests, Colonel Parker gave a course 
of lectures before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, and these 
were reported by Miss Patrdge, and published in this book. 

The book became famous ; 
more copies were sold of it in 
the same time than of any 
other educational book what- 
ever. The daily papers, which 
usually pass by such books 
with a mere mention, devoted 
columns to reviews of it. 

The following points wiD 
show why the teacher will 
want this book. 

1. It explains the " New 
Methods." There is a wide 
gulf between the new and the 
old education. Even school 
boards understand this. 

2. It gives the underlying 
principles of education. For it 

must be remembered that Col. Parker is not expounding his 
methods, but the methods of nature. 

e 3. It gives the ideas of man who is evidently an " ediica* 
tional genius," a man born to understand and expound educa- 
tion. We have few such ; they are worth everything to the 
human race. 

4. It gives a biography of Col. Parker. This will help the 
teacher of education to comprehend the man and his motives. 

5, It has been adopted l^&earLv every State Reading Circle 




mm all ona^m to 
$. JL KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 35 



Seeleys Grube 9 s Method of Teaching 

ARITHMETIC. Explained and illustrated. Also the im* 
provements on the method made by the followers of 
Grube in Germany. By Levi Seeley, Ph.D. Cloth, 
176 pp. Price, $1.00; to teachers 80 cents; by mail, 
7 cents extra. 

1. It is a Philosophical 
Work. — This book has a sound 
philosophical basis. The child 
does not (as most teachers seem 
to think) learn addition, then 
subtraction, then multiplica- 
tion, then division; he learns 
these processes together. Grube 
saw this, and founded his sys- 
tem on this fact. 

2. It Follows Natures 
Plan. — Grube proceeds to de- 
velop (so to speak) the method 
by which the child actually be- 
comes (if he ever does) ac- 
quainted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. 
This is not done, as some sup- 
pose, by writing them on a 
slate. Nature has her method ; 
she begins with things; after 

handling two things in certain ways, the idea of two is ob- 
tained, and so ot other numbers. The chief value of this 
book then consists in shoiving what may be termed the way 
nature teaches the child number. 

3. It is Valuable to Primary Teachers.— It begins and 
shows how the child can be tanght 1, then 2, then 3, &c. 
Hence it is a work especially valuable for the primary teacher. 
It gives much space to showing how the numbers up to 10 are 
taught ; for if this be correctly done, the pupil will almost 
teach himself the rest. 

4. It Can Be Used in advanced Grades.— It discusses 
methods of teaching fractions, percentage, etc., so that it is a 
work valuable for all classes of teachers. 

5 £t Guides the Teacher's Work.— It shows, for exam- 
ple, what the teacher can appropriately do the first year, what 
the second, the third, and the fourth. More than this, it sug- 
gests work for the teacher she would otherwise omit. 

Taking it altogether, it is the best work on teaching num* 
ter ever published. It is very handsomely printed and ©wind* 




DR. LEVI SEELEY. 



a 



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Hughes {Mistakes in Teaching. 

By James J. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada. 

Cloth, 16mo, 115 pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; 

by mail, 5 cents extra. 

Thousands of copies of the old 
edition have been sold. The new 
edition is worth double the old; 
the material has been increased, 
restated, and greatly improved. 
Two new and important Chapters 
have been added on "Mistakes in 
Aims/' and "Mistakes in Moral 
Training." Mr. Hughes says in his 
preface: "In issuing a revised edi- 
tion of this book, it seems fitting to 
acknowledge gratefully the hearty 
appreciation that has been accorded 
it by American teachers. Realiz- 
ing as I do that its very large sale 
indicates that it has been of service 
to many of my fellow-teachers, I 
! have recognized the duty of enlarg- 
ing and revising it so as to make it 
still more helpful in preventing 
James L. Hughes, Inspector of the common mistakes in teaching 
Schools, Toronto, Canada. an( ^ training." 

This is one of the six books recommended by the N. Y. State 
Department to teachers preparing for examination for State cer* 
tificates. 

CAUTION. 

Our new authorized copyright edition, entirely rewritten by 
the author, is the only one to buy. It is beautifully printed and' 
handsomely bound. Get no other. 

CONTENTS OF OUR NEW EDITION. 

Chap. I. 7 Mistakes in Aim. 
Chap. II. 21 Mistakes in School Management. 
Chap. III. 24 Mistakes in Discipline. 
Chap. IV. 27 Mistakes in Method. 
Chap. V. 13 Mistakes in Moral Training. 
Chaps. I. and V. are entirely new. 




<3l& ^ 



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20 B L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 

Hughes Securing and Retaining Atten- 

tion. By James L. Hughes, Inspector Schools, Toronto, 
Canada, author of "Mistakes in Teaching." Cloth, 116 pp e 
Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

This valuable little book has already become widely known te 
American teachers. Our new edition has been almost entirety 
re-written, and several new important chapters added. It is the 
only authorized copyright edition. Caution. — Buy no other. 

WHAT IT CONTAINS. 

I. General Principles; II. Kinds of Attention; III. Characteristics of Good 
Attention; IV. Conditions of Attention; V. Essential Characteristics of the 
Teacher in Securing and Retaining Attention; VI. How to Control a Class; 
VII. Methods of Stimulating and Controlling a Desire for Knowledge; VIII. 
How to Gratify and Develop the Desire for Mental Activity; IX. Distracting 
Attention; X. Training the Power of Attention; XI. General Suggestions 
regarding Attention. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

S. P. Rohbins, Pres. McGill Normal School, Montreal, Can., writes to Mr. 
Hughes: — "It is quite superfluous for me to say that your little books are 
admirable. I was yesterday authorized to put the * Attention ' on the list 
of books to be used in the Normal School next year. Crisp and attractive 
in style, and mighty by reason of its good, sound common-sense, it is a 
book that every teacher should know." 

Popular Educator (Boston):—" Mr. Hughes has embodied the best think- 
ing of ms life in these pages." 

Central School Journal (la.).—" Though published four or five years 
since, this book has steadily advanced in popularity." 

Educational Courant (Ky.).— "It is intensely practical. There isn't a 
mystical, muddy expression in the book." 

Educational Times (England).—" On an important subject, and admir- 
ably executed." 

School Guardian (England).—" We unhesitatingly recommend it." 

New England Journal of Education.—" The book is a guide and a 
manual of special value." 

New York School Journal. — " Every teacher would derive benefit from 

reading this volume." 
Chicago Educational Weekly.— "The teacher who aims at best sue 

cess should study it." 
Phii. Teacher.—" Many who have spent months in the school-room would 

be benefited by it." 
Maryland School Journal.—" Always clear, never tedious." 
Va. Ed. Journal.—" Excellent hints as to securing attention." 
Ohio Educational Monthly.—" We advise readers to send for a cop}'." 
Pacific Home and School Journal.—" An excellent little manual." 
Prest. James H. Hoose, State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y., says:— 

" The book must prove of great benefit to the profession." 
Supt. A. W. Edson, Jersey City, N. J., says:—" A good treatise has long 

been needed, and Mr. Hughes has supplied the want." 



E. 



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Dewey's How to Teach Manners in the 

School-Koom. By Mrs.. Julia M. Dewey, Principal of the 
Normal School at Lowell, Mass., formerly Supt. of Schools 
at Hoosick Falls, N. Y. Cloth, 16mo, 104 pp. Price, 50 
cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

Many teachers consider the manners of a pupil of little impor- 
tance so long as he is industrious. But the boys and girls are to 
be fathers and mothers; some of the boys will stand in places of 
importance as professional men, and they will carry the mark of 
ill-breeding all their lives. Manners can be taught in the school- 
room: they render the school-room more attractive; they banish 
tendencies to misbehavior. In this volume Mrs. Dewey has shown 
how manners can be taught. The method is to present some fact 
of deportment, and then lead the children to discuss its bearings; 
thus they learn why good manners are to be learned and practised. 
The printing and binding are exceedingly neat and attractive." 

OUTLINE OF 

Introduction. 

General Directions. 

Special Directions to Teachers. 



Lessons on Manners for Youngest 

Pupils. 
Lessons on Manners — Second Two 

Years. 
Manners in School— First Two Years. 

" " Second " 

Manners at Home— First " 

" . " Second " 

Manners in Public — First " 

k% " Second " 



CONTENTS. 

Table Manners— First Two Years. 

" " Second " 

Lessons on Manners for Advanced 

Pupils. 
Manners in School. 
Personal Habits. 
Manners in Public. 
Table Manners. 
Manners in Society. 
Miscellaneous Items. 
Practical Training in Manners. 
Suggestive Stories, Fables, Anec- 
dotes, and Poems. 
Memory Gems. 

Central School Journal.— "It furnishes illustrative lessons." 
Texas School Journal.—" They (the pupils) will carry the mark of ill- 
breeding all their lives (unless taught otherwise)." 

Pacific Ed. Journal.—" Principles are enforced by anecdote and conver- 
sation." 
Teacher's Exponent.—" We believe such a book will be very welcome." 
National Educator.— " Common-sense suggestions." 
Ohio Ed. Monthly. — " Teachers would do well to get it." 
Nebraska Teacher.— " Many teachers consider manners of little im- 
portance but some of the boys will stand in places of importance." 
School Educator. — "The spirit of the author is commendable." 
School Herald. — " These lessons are full of suggestions." 
Va. School Journal. — "Lessons furnished in a delightful style." 
Miss. Teacher.—" The best presentation we have seen." 
Ed. Courant,— " It is simple, straightforward, and plain." 
Iowa Normal Monthly.—" Practical and well-arranged lessons on man- 
ners." 

Progressive Educator.—" Will prove to be most helpful to the teacher 
who desires her pupils to be well-mannered." 



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5 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 

Aliens Mind Studies for Young Teac h- 

ers. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the 
School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of 
N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to 
teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There are many teachers who 
know little about psychology, 
and who desire to be better in- 
formed concerning its princi- 
ples, especially its relation to the 
work of teaching. For the aid 
of such, this book has been pre- 
pared. But it is not a psychol- 
ogy — only an introduction to it, 
aiming to give some funda- 
mental principles, together with 
something concerning the phi- 
losophy of education. Its meth- 
od is subjective rather than ob- 
jective, leading the student to 
watch mental processes, and 
draw his own conclusions. It 
is written in language easy to 
be comprehended, and has many 
Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor practical illustrations. It will 
of the Journal and institute. aid the teacher in his daily work 
in dealing with mental facts and states. 

To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows 
how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also 
shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know 
in others what we do not first know in ourselves. " This is the 
key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will 
appreciate this feature of " Mind Studies." 
ITS CONTENTS. 




GHAP. 

I. How to Study Mind. 
II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. 

III. Development. 

IV. Mind Incentives. 

V. A few Fundamental Principles 

Settled. 
VI. Temperaments. 
VII. Training of the Senses. 
VIII. Attention. 
IX. Perception. 
X. Abstraction. 

XI. Faculties used in Abstract 
Thinking, 



CHAP. 

XII. From the Subjective to the 
Conceptive. 

XIII. The Will. 

XIV. Diseases of the Will. 
XV. Kinds of Memory. 

XVI. The Sensibilities. 
XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to the Will. 
XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. 
XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to Morality. 
XX. The Imagination. 
XXI. Imagination in its Maturity. 
XXII. Education of the Moral Sense. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




013 966 809 1 • 



